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RIVERSIDE TEXTBOOKS 
IN EDUCATION 

EDITED BY ELLWOOD P. CUBBERLEY 

PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION 
LELAND STANFORD JUNIOR UNIVERSITY 



RIVERSIDE TEXTBOOKS 
IN EDUCATION 



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EXPERIMENTAL 
EDUCATION 

Laboratory Manual and Typical Results 

BY 

FRANK N. FREEMAN, Ph.D. 

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 

THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO 

AUTHOR OF "THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING" AND 

"THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE COMMON BRANCHES" 



HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY 

BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO 

(Cbe Iftiberpibc prcstf Cambribgc 



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COl'YRIGHT, 1916, BY FRANK N. FREEMAN 
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 



CAMBRIDGE . MASSACHUSETTS 
U . S . A 

I 

AUG -7 1916 
©CLA437128 



EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION 

The experimental investigation of educational pro- 
blems had its origin, in large measure, among the 
workers in psychological laboratories. The subject- 
matter of the problems is chiefly psychological in na- 
ture. Many of the methods which have been devel- 
oped in the psychological laboratories are applicable 
to the study of the problems of education, and some 
of the problems in psychology, particularly those of 
learning and memory, have direct bearing upon edu- 
cation. 

During recent years experimental education has ex- 
perienced a very rapid growth, and there have been 
extensive developments in certain specialized direc- 
tions. The fields in which this work has been largely 
done are the investigation of the learning process which 
characterizes progress in the subjects of study in school, 
the accurate measurement of attainment in these 
school subjects, and the determination of individual 
ability through tests of mental maturity, intelligence, 
and individual differences. These problems, while of 
the same general nature as those studied in the psy- 
chological laboratories, are in the main untouched in 
the work of these laboratories and in the manuals 
which have been prepared for the guidance of their 



vi EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION 

work. Under these conditions the formulation of 
courses of experiments for students in education, 
which shall meet the special demands of this particular 
field of investigation, is highly desirable, since the 
organization of manuals to serve as guides in such 
courses has not kept pace with the research which has 
been carried on. This is the natural result of the new- 
ness of the field, of its lack of organization, and of the 
variable quality of the work which has been done in it. 
The present volume of this series of textbooks is an 
attempt, by a psychologist who has been engaged in 
much of this newer type of educational investigation, 
to make a workable organization of this new field in 
applied psychology, to sift the valuable phases of the 
work from those which are ephemeral, and to formu- 
late a series of experiments which shall introduce the 
student to the more important problems of experi- 
mental education. As such it is hoped that it may 
prove of much use to students of such problems as are 
here included. 

Ellwood P. Cubberley 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER I. Introduction 1 

CHAPTER II. Analysis of Various Types of the 
Learning Process 

Experiment No. 1. Sensori-Motor Learning . . . .13 

Experiment No. 2. Perceptual Learning 25 

Experiment No. 3. Learning of the Problem-Solving 

Type • 32 

A. Puzzle-Box Experiment 34 

B. The Tait Labyrinth Puzzle 36 

Experiment No. 4. Transfer of Training in Sensori-Motor 

Learning 41 

Experiment No. 5. The Factors in Memory as revealed in 

Rote Memorizing 51 

Experiment No. 6. Memory for Sense Material ... 64 

CHAPTER III. Experiments with School Subjects 

Experiment No. 7. Experimental Psychological Analysis of 

Handwriting 72 

Experiment No. 8. A Test of Handwriting .... 82 
Experiment No. 9. Observation of Eye Movements in 

Reading 95 

Experiment No. 10. Study of the Perceptual Process in 

Reading by the Tachistoscopic Method . . . .110 

ExperimentNo.il. Efficiency of Reading .... 117 

Experiment No. 12. Apprehension of Number . . . 132 

CHAPTER IV. Tests 

Experiment No. 13. Tests of Visual Defects .... 141 
Experiment No. 14. Tests of Auditory Acuity . . . 152 



viii CONTENTS 

Experiment No. 15. Tests of Maturity of a Mental Func- 
tion 162 

A. Immediate Memory for Numbers . . . .162 

B. Reconstruction of Sentences ..... 164 
Experiment No. 16. Correlation between Tests . . . 170 

APPENDIX. Figures and Tests for Use with the 
Experiments 

Six Figures for Use with Experiment 2 189 

Tait Unicursal Labyrinth, Experiment 3, B . . . 191 

Series of Syllables for Experiment 5 192 

Poem to be used in Experiment 6 193 

Texts for Use with Experiment 9 198 

Figures and Words for Use in Experiment 10 . . . . 208 

Material for Use with Experiment 12 209 

Material for Use with Experiment 15, B 213 

Key to Sentence Arrangement in Experiment 15 . . 215 

Stimuli for Use with Experiment 16 216 

Response List for Experiment 16 217 

INDEX 219 



ILLUSTRATIONS 

Fig. 1. Apparatus used in Experiment No. 1 . .14 

Fig. 2. Arrangement of Cards used in Experi- 
ment No. 1 16 

Fig. 3. Diagram of Puzzle Box 35 

Fig. 4. Tracer Record from a Writer who uses 
Little (A) and Much (B) Arm Move- 
ment 76 

Fig. 5. Tracer Record from a Writer who uses a 

Medium Amount of Arm Movement . 77 

Fig. 6. Mirror for Observing Eye Movements . 95 

Fig. 7. Diagram of the Connections for the Tap- 
ping Apparatus 172 



EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

CHAPTER I 

INTRODUCTION 

Within the past ten years there has been very 
marked activity in the scientific study of the psycho- 
logical problems involved in education. This activity 
is evidenced by the large number of papers reporting 
experimental studies, read before meetings of edu- 
cational and psychological associations, and by the 
stream of articles dealing with experimental education 
appearing in educational and psychological periodicals. 
This investigation of educational problems by the 
general methods developed in the psychological lab- 
oratory was instituted and promoted in the first place 
by professional psychologists, and originally dealt with 
problems of general psychological analysis. In the 
course of its development, however, both the aim and 
the content of this study have shifted, and it has be- 
come necessary to reformulate them in order to meet 
the demands of students who are interested in the 
psychological aspects of education. 

The earlier applications of psychology to education 
dealt primarily with trje development of general psy- 
chological principles, and secondarily with their appli- 
cation. The first consequence of this emphasis on the 



2 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

theoretical side was that, since there were no clear 
standards as to what was of most importance from the 
practical point of view, much time was spent on the 
elaboration of principles which were relatively unim- 
portant for education. The second consequence was 
that, since the basis of classification was the psycho- 
logical system, the facts or principles which applied to 
any particular problem, such as reading or writing, 
were scattered through various parts of a course in- 
stead of being focused on the practical problem itself. 

The course which is here presented accordingly pro- 
ceeds, for the most part, from the opposite starting- 
point. Instead of developing the general psychological 
principles and laws, and then making incidental appli- 
cation, it attacks directly the practical problems and 
attempts to throw light upon them by an analysis of 
the psychological principles which are involved in 
them. This means that the selection of problems is 
based directly on their practical importance, and that 
the arrangement is such as to bring together the facts 
which serve to illuminate some one practical problem. 

An exception to this general rule that the experi- 
ments deal with specific educational problems rather 
than with general psychological principles, appears in 
the early experiments, which deal with learning and 
memorizing. This exception is justified by the very 
wide and evident application which these principles 
have in education. The purpose of the experiments in 
this first section is to cause the student to make an 



INTRODUCTION 3 

analysis of his own learning process, and to compare 
his learning process with that of others, to the end that 
he may know what the conditions of efficient learning 
are, and how the learning of others may be most effec- 
tively directed. For this reason the conditions of 
learning are experimentally varied in such a manner 
that the effect of different conditions may be compared. 
A variety of typical forms of learning are employed, 
including rote and sense memorizing. 

In the next group of experiments the student is led 
to examine forms of learning which are represented in 
the fundamental subjects of the school curriculum. 
We are here dealing with special problems which have 
a still more direct application to school procedure than 
does the analysis of the learning process in general. 
Besides the analysis of the mental process involved in 
the learning of the school subjects, it is of great value 
to the administration of education to be able to meas- 
ure the attainment of pupils in the various branches 
by means of tests which render the results comparable 
to general standards. Accordingly, two examples of 
such test methods are included in the experiments on 
the school subjects. 

Finally, for the proper direction of the pupil's learn- 
ing process, it is necessary that we shall have informa- 
tion regarding his intellectual equipment for the tasks 
which are required of him. The detection of defects in 
the avenues by which experience is acquired necessi- 
tates the discovery and correction of, or allowance for, 



4 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

sensory defects. A general knowledge of the methods 
of testing for sensory defects is desirable. The methods 
of testing other types of ability can be illustrated only 
roughly, and the qualification must always be kept in 
mind that the results with adults cannot be applied 
directly to children. Various test methods can be illus- 
trated, however, so as to give an acquaintance with the 
types of tests which give an insight into important 
individual and age variations. Opportunity may also 
be given to become familiar with the methods of study- 
ing the interrelation of mental traits and with some of 
<v the typical results of such a study. 

In addition to an appreciation of the facts of learn- 
ing established by the experiments, the course should 
stimulate the student to make a study of the process of 
experimentation itself, and to form a notion of the chief 
characteristics of a valid experimental method. The 
main features of the experimental method have been 
frequently described, and may be briefly illustrated 
here as an introduction to the experiments themselves. 

The aim of scientific investigation may be said to be 
to study the uniformities in the facts or processes 
which are the subjects of study. This usually resolves 
itself into a study of the relationship of one series of 
events to another as to cause and effect. Thus, the 
study of the events of the physical world has led to the 
discoveries of certain uniformities or laws, such as the 
law of gravitation, the laws of light and sound propa- 
gation, and the law of evolution. Now, the discovery 



INTRODUCTION 5 

of such uniformities merely by the observation of the 
events as they occur spontaneously, is very difficult, 
since a particular event may never occur twice with 
precisely the same surrounding conditions, or two 
events between which the relationship is to be discov- 
ered may always occur intermingled with a variety of 
others. Thus, it was difficult to determine purely by 
observation whether or not the bite of a mosquito is 
related to yellow fever as cause to effect, because there 
were associated with this condition a variety of others 
— such as contact with those who were afflicted with 
the disease — to complicate the relationship. Under 
these circumstances the experimental method was re- 
sorted to in order to simplify the conditions by artifi- 
cially producing the events which were to be studied, in 
isolation from others. That is, an investigator first ex- 
posed himself to contact with a yellow- fever patient 
while carefully protecting himself from the bite of the 
mosquito; and then exposed himself to the mosquito 
bite while remaining isolated from infected patients. 
The experiment proved to be crucial and conclusive 
by the immunity of the investigator in the first case 
and his infection in the second. 

Sometimes the aim of an experiment is not so specific 
as this. Instead of seeking to determine which of two 
alternative explanations is correct, the experimenter 
may attempt to make a more general analysis or survey 
of certain phenomena, for the sake of discovering any 
laws which may be revealed, and of hitting upon prob- 



6 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

lems which may be attacked in a more specific manner 
afterwards. Such an experiment is illustrated in the 
well-known Bryan and Harter experiment in learning 
the telegraphic language. In the first survey experi- 
ment the authors discovered the existence of a plateau 
or long level place in the curve of progress. Their later 
experiment was for the purpose of discovering the 
cause of this phenomenon by further analysis of the 
learning curve into several curves, representing prog- 
ress in receiving isolated letters, disconnected words, 
and connected discourse. 

Whether an experiment is of the crucial or of the 
general-survey type, it has certain characteristics 
which must be adhered to if it is to give results which 
are reliable. First, all the conditions which might 
affect the result in any degree must be controlled, as 
far as possible; or, if they cannot be controlled com- 
pletely, they must be accurately measured or observed 
and recorded. The simplest method, and the one 
which is pursued as far as possible, is to keep all the 
conditions constant except one, and then to vary one 
condition by a certain known amount, and measure the 
result. Thus, we may measure the effect of practice by 
giving a person a certain specified amount of practice 
in a particular activity, and by noting the change in his 
ability without introducing or allowing a change in any 
other condition which would affect the result. If the 
person were in better health in one part of the period 
than in another, or if he also practiced in some related 



INTRODUCTION 7 

field which affected his progress in the one under inves- 
tigation, these factors would have to be taken into 
account. 

It is frequently impossible or very difficult to study 
one factor in isolation, and in such cases it may be 
necessary to make check experiments. J. E. W. Wallin 
made an investigation * of the effect of correcting de- 
fects of the teeth and instituting correct habits of care 
of the mouth, in the case of school children, which illus- 
trates this point. A group of children were tested men- 
tally before, during, and after the correction of mouth 
defects and the institution of habits of hygiene, which 
tests continued for several months, and a large im- 
provement was found. But other factors than oral 
hygiene affected the results; namely, general increase 
in maturity, school work, and the practice with the 
tests themselves. Wallin himself recognized this fact, 
and wrote that it had been his plan to give check tests 
to other children who had not received the special 
treatment. This would have made it possible to dis- 
count the other factors. This principle of the check 
test has a very wide application, and will be illustrated 
in several of the experiments of this course. 

Whatever the special character of an experiment, the 
procedure must be objective and verifiable. The possi- 
bility of verification by the repetition of the experi- 
ment by another rests upon the objectivity of the 

1 J. E. W. Wallin, "Experimental Oral Euthenics"; in Dental 
Cosmos, April and May, 1912. 



8 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

procedure. It therefore is necessary to be clear as to 
the meaning of objectivity. Objectivity is contrasted 
with unsupported opinion. In a scientific experiment 
it requires that the conditions be so controlled and 
reported that they may be duplicated. It means fur- 
ther that the results be carefully measured and pre- 
sented, or, when measurement is not possible, that 
they be fully and accurately described. It means 
finally that the conclusions which are drawn shall 
rest upon the results which are presented, so that 
another person may check them up by reference to 
the results on which they are based. 

These are, in brief outline, the chief requirements of 
a valid scientific experiment. A word should be said 
about the presentation of results. When a number of 
experiments are made with the same subject, or when 
a number of subjects are experimented upon, it be- 
comes necessary to employ some method of formulat- 
ing the mass of results so as to show their trend. Fre- 
quently the significance of the results is dependent 
upon the skill with which this formulation is made. 
Two general methods of formulation may be distin- 
guished; the tabular presentation or statistical formu- 
lation of numerical data, and the graphic presentation 
of data. Both of these methods will be illustrated in 
the presentation of typical results of the following ex- 
periments. A concise account of the chief methods 
may be found in G. M. Whipple's Manual of Mental 
and Physical Tests, vol. I, chap. 3. 



INTRODUCTION 9 

The chief conditions for a valid experiment may be 
summed up in a set of rules: — 

1. So far as possible a single factor should be iso- 
lated for study. When this cannot be done, check 
experiments should be made. 

2. All the conditions of the experiment should be 
made quantitatively as precise as possible. This 
includes the regulation of the stimulus as to the 
amount, duration, and interval, and the meas- 
urement of response. Where required, it also 
involves the correct statistical formulation of 
results. It should go without saying, but unfor- 
tunately does not, that all calculations must be 
accurate. Every calculation should be checked. 

3. In some cases a qualitative interpretation gives 
the results more significantly than a quantitative 
formulation of results. 

4. The analysis or interpretation of results is ex- 
tremely important, particularly in a survey 
experiment. 

5. An immediate record should be made of every- 
thing which occurs, as introspections, and all 
records should be completely identified. 

6. An objective, impartial attitude toward the re- 
sults is essential. 

7. The problems which are raised by the experiment 
should be noted as well as the solutions which are 
obtained, and, if possible, modifications of the 
experiment should be set up to attack them. 



10 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

8. The conclusions should be generalized only so far 
as the results justify. 

The value of an experiment to others depends on the 
way it is reported, as well as on the character of the 
experiment. To make the report complete it should 
include: — 

1. A brief but clear statement of the problem. 

2. An account of previous investigations leading up 
to the present one. 

3. A more detailed statement of the problem and 
method of the experiment, including a sketch of 
the apparatus. 

4. A presentation by tables, graphic figures, and 
explanatory statements of the detailed and sum- 
mary results. 

5. An interpretative discussion of the results. 

6. A discriminating statement of conclusions. 

7. A bibliography of the references used in the 
report. 

In the set experiments of this course Nos. 2 and 7 
may be omitted, but they are necessary in an original 
investigation. 

Note to the instructor 

Most of the experiments which are here outlined are 
intended to be performed by pairs of students working 
together. Each student should work both as experi- 
menter and as subject. 

Each student is expected to turn in a full written 



INTRODUCTION 11 

report, which should include the numerical or other 
data which were obtained by himself as subject and a 
complete analysis and interpretation of the results. 
After all the individual reports are in for an experi- 
ment, some member of the class should combine the 
data from all of these into a group report. This group 
report should be presented at a class meeting, and 
thoroughly discussed. This presentation and discus- 
sion of the group results is the most valuable phase of 
the whole work. It makes it possible to discover the 
general results as they emerge from the variety of the 
individual results, and also makes each experiment a 
study of individual differences. Furthermore, it gives 
excellent opportunity to comment on violations of 
correct experimental procedure and to bring home the 
principles of valid experimentation. 

Note. — The apparatus used in this course can be ob- 
tained from the psychology shop of the University of Chi- 
cago by writing to the author, or from C. H. Stoelting & 
Co., Chicago. Prices will be quoted on application. 



CHAPTER II 

ANALYSIS OF VARIOUS TYPES OF THE LEARNING 
PROCESS 

One of the most fruitful fields of experimentation 
in education is the analysis of the learning process. 
Many experiments in this field have been made, and 
a variety of types of learning have been studied. 

The types of learning which have been the subjects 
of investigation may be classified, roughly, into four 
groups : — 

A. The development of a motor coordination. 

B. The development of adequate perception. 

C. The formation of associations between per- 
ceptual or ideational elements. 

D. The analysis of a situation. 

Such a classification as this is of value because it 
distinguishes between processes which differ from the 
descriptive point of view, as well as in the methods 
which are best suited to hasten progress in the several 
kinds of learning. It must not be inferred, however, 
that the same task may not include more than one 
kind of learning, or that similarities between the va- 
rious kinds of learning cannot be found. 



THE LEARNING PROCESS 13 

Experiment No. 1 

SENSORI-MOTOR LEARNING 

Problem. The first experiment is for the purpose of 
illustrating the development of a motor coordination. 
The development of motor coordination in its simplest 
terms consists in the adjustment of a movement to a 
stimulus, or, more particularly, in the development of 
the ability to make movements which shall meet cer- 
tain conditions presented in perceptual form. Physio- 
logically, motor learning consists in the formation of 
appropriate nervous connections, or paths of discharge, 
between certain sensory centers and certain motor 
centers. This is the matter reduced to simplest terms. 
The process of such development is illustrated by J. H. 
Bair's experiment in learning to move the ears. There 
being no instinctive connection between the sensations 
which accompany ear movements and the movements 
themselves, this connection has to be formed through 
practice. A more complex type of learning consists in 
adapting a series of movements to a complex stimulus 
or to a changing stimulus. Swift's ball-tossing experi- 
ment, and the experiment included in this course, are 
relatively simple examples of this type. The matter 
becomes more complex when it becomes necessary to 
organize the perceptual or motor elements, as in Bryan 
and Harter's experiment with telegraphy or Swift's or 
Book's experiments in learning to use the typewriter. 



14 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

Such experiments have a direct bearing upon educa- 
tion wherever it is concerned with the development of 
motor skill, as in handwriting, drawing, and the man- 
ual arts generally. The results of such experiments 
also have an indirect bearing on education by means of 
the discovery, through them, of general principles of 



Fig. 1. DRAWING OF APPARATUS USED IN EXPERIMENT NO. I, 
SHOWING THE GENERAL RELATIONS OE THE MECHANISM 



the learning process — as, for example, the relation of 
effort to progress in learning. 

Material and method. The learning process in this 
experiment consists in adapting simple hand move- 
ments to the drawing of a series of lines to connect a 
group of dots, when the relation between the direction 
of the hand movements and of the movement of the 
pen which produces the lines is different from that to 
which one is accustomed. The modification in the rela- 
tionship between the hand movements and the result- 



THE LEARNING PROCESS 15 

ing pen movements is made by means of a mechanism, 
the study of which is left to the student. (See Fig. 1.) 
In addition to the modification produced by this mech- 
anism, the apparent direction of the pen movement is 
changed, not by mechanical adjustments, but by the 
use of a mirror. By varying the position of the mirror, 
this apparent direction may be changed at will. For 
the study of progress in learning, let one person of each 
pair place the mirror parallel to the long side of the 
board which is farther from the subject. Let the sec- 
ond member of each pair place the mirror parallel to 
the left side of the base. 

The apparatus should be placed so that the long side 
of the base is parallel to the edge of the table, and the 
handle in a convenient position to be manipulated by 
the right hand. 

Stimulus card No. 1 is to be used in this experiment, 
and is to be placed with the margins parallel to the 
edges of the apparatus and with the X toward the 
subject. The stimulus cards are shown in the accom- 
panying Figure 2. 

To indicate the order in which the lines are to be 
drawn, small groups of dots are used, instead of figures, 
since the figures would have to be reversed in order 
to be read in a mirror. The lines are to be drawn 
from circle 1 to circle 2, then to circle 3, and so on; 
and the star should be finally completed by connect- 
ing circles 6 and 1. The aim of the subject should 
be to cause the pen to touch each dot in succession 



16 



EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 






O 




Stimulus Card No. I. 



• • o 



• • • 

• • • 



o •• • 



o 



Stimulus Card No. II. 

Fio. 2. ARRANGEMENT OF CARDS USED 
IN EXPERIMENT NO. 1 



as rapidly as pos- 
sible, and the cri- 
terion of progress 
may be the reduc- 
tion of the time 
taken to complete 
the whole figure. 

Since the accu- 
racy requirement 
is constant, name- 
ly, that each dot 
shall be touched 
in succession, the 
time taken serves 
as a convenient 
and sufficiently 
adequate measure 
of efficiency. 

The experi- 
menter should 
note the time of 
each trial with a 
stop - watch, and 
should attend to 
changing the 
cards, keeping the 
pen supplied with 
ink, etc. 
Twenty-five tri- 



THE LEARNING PROCESS 17 

als should be made with the card and mirror, as indi- 
cated above. 

The subject should make note during the experiment 
of any introspections he may make regarding the 
means by which improvement is attained, the direc- 
tion of his attention, etc. 

In order to throw light upon the value and limita- 
tions of instruction in this type of learning, the follow- 
ing method should be employed: Let one student of 
each pair first go through the experiment without in- 
struction or any special consideration of the methods 
of learning. Let him then develop, as best he can 
on the basis of his own experience and of his reading, 
the principles and rules of economical sensori-motor 
learning, and instruct his partner in these rules and 
principles. These instructions should be formulated 
in writing and included in the report. They should 
not be made too specific, but should be of such a kind 
that they could be applied to other tasks in learning 
which are of a similar nature. The second student 
may also obtain what light he can on the best method 
of procedure from an observation of his predecessor, 
and should give an account of his conclusions in his 
report. He should also discuss the question whether 
the instructions were of assistance to him. The gen- 
eral report should include a comparison of the records 
of the instructed and uninstructed learners. 

Treatment of results. A curve of progress should be 
constructed by charting, on cross-section paper, the 



18 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

time taken for the successive trials. Each trial may be 
represented by a unit on the horizontal axis, and the 
height of the curve above these successive unit dis- 
tances may represent the length of time required for 
the succeeding trials. Thus a drop in the curve means 
decrease in the time required, or improvement. 

An analysis of the practice curve should be made, so 
as to explain its general form and any fluctuations 
which may appear. In the analysis and interpretation 
of the curves, use should be made of the notes on 
introspections. 

The numerical results which are the basis of the 
practice curves should be presented in the form of 
tables. 

The general report upon this experiment should 
discuss, first, individual differences with reference to 
the rate of improvement, the amount of skill attained, 
the suddenness or gradualness of improvement; and, 
second, the general facts common to the individual 
results, as the part of the practice series at which the 
more rapid part of the improvement occurs, and the 
effect of intelligent instruction upon learning. A gen- 
eral summary should also be made of the individual 
analyses and interpretations. This should include a 
discussion of the difficulties which had to be overcome 
and the methods and devices which were employed in 
overcoming them. 

Results of the experiment. Some of the most signifi- 
cant results of this experiment are derived from an 



THE LEARNING PROCESS 19 

analysis by each subject of his experience in the learn- 
ing, and from the interpretation of this experience so 
as to apply the conclusions to similar forms of learning, 
such as handwriting. In order to give opportunity for 
some originality in this analysis and interpretation, 
the discussion of these matters will not be entered upon 
here. The province of " instruction " in this type of 
learning, and the kind of instruction which is of most 
value, is directly related to the learning process. 

Typical objective data on which the interpretative 
discussion just mentioned may be based are presented 
in Chart I. It is clear that there is some radical differ- 
ence between the " instructed " and the " uninstructed " 
groups which is to be explained. The difference is 
not accidental, since this is a typical case. The ques- 
tion should be raised whether the verbal instructions 
in this case constituted the only factor which was dif- 
ferent in the two groups. If the analysis of the situa- 
tion should lead to the conclusion that there are other 
differences between the groups introduced by the con- 
ditions of the experiment than that of the presence or 
absence of verbal instructions, the importance of these 
other factors should be estimated. If there is opportu- 
nity to carry on other experiments the relative impor- 
tance of instruction and of these other factors may be 
measured. 

The median curves give a good basis for the discus- 
sion of the general form of the practice curve, and for 
an attempt to explain it. In this discussion it is well to 





















































seconds 




















































































































































160 
























































































































































































































































140 




































































































1 




















































































































































120 










































































































































































































\ 














































100 




\ 
















































\ 


















































1 


1 


















































\ 


























































































80 






\ 
















































' 




















































\ 














































1 




\ 














































1 




\ 










































60 








) 


















































I 


















































\ 


















































\ 


















































' 








































40 




















































' 












































- 






















































































































































20 









































































































































































































































































































Trials 



10 



15 



'2U 



25 



Chart I. CURVES OF PROGRESS IN MODIFIED MIR- 
ROR DRAWING BASED ON THE MEDIANS OP TWO 
GROUPS OP INDIVIDUALS 

The upper line represents the " uninstructed " group (eleven 
individuals) and the lower line the " instructed" (nine indi- 
viduals). 



















































Time in 
















































seconds 


















































1 














































200 




\ 














































\ 
















































\ 












































































































































180 






























































































































































































































































































160 
































































































2 


s 
















































\ 












































140 




w 






























































































\ 
































































































1 












































120 


















































1 


1 
































































































/' 


























































































100 






/ 














































1 


i 


















* 




























\ 
















. 


























































































































80 












































































































































































































































60 






















































































































































i 




































-■ 










































/ 


■ 




40 
















































3- 






















































































































































































A 




20 












































2 




















































































1 










































































_ ^ 












3 














i 


















l 


















Trials 



10 



20 



25 



Chabt II. CURVES OF PROGRESS OF THREE INDI- 
VIDUALS IN MODIFIED MIRROR DRAWING 

Showing individual differences in rapidity of the sensori- 
motor process and in rate of improvement. The fluctuations 
in an individual's practice curve are also brought out. It should 
be noted that the scale of this chart in respect to the represen- 
tation of the time of the trials is reduced, making the height 
of the curves half that of the curves of Chart I. 



22 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

compare the form of these curves with that of others, 
as, for example, those of Bryan and Harter's experi- 
ment, and the ball-tossing experiment of Swift. 

The great individual differences which appear in 
such a form of learning as this are clearly illustrated in 
Chart II. These extremes are not at all unusual. Their 
significance and educational bearing may be discussed. 
The introspective notes should throw some light on the 
fluctuations which are to be observed in the individual 
curves. 

A comparison of the records of those individuals who 
attempt to analyze the relationship of the hand move- 
ment to the pen movement, in order to guide their 
efforts by a comprehension of this relationship, indi- 
cates that, on the average, they take more time to 
learn than those who abandon such attempts and 
resort to random trial. In one group the average time 
spent by those who attempted analysis was forty -five 
seconds per trial, and by those who did not, thirty-one 
seconds. 

Extension of the experiment. It would be worth 
while to know whether those who make a thorough 
analysis before starting are benefited thereby in their 
first set of trials, and also whether they do better when 
the conditions are modified, as in Experiment No. 4. 
To study this question a class may be divided into two 
equal groups. One group may then proceed according 
to the regular directions, and the other may remove 
the cover, study the levers, and work out by diagram 



THE LEAENING PROCESS 23 

the relationship of the pen and the hand movements 
to the movements of the hand. This should be done 
without practicing making the movements with the 
hand. 

A marked plateau does not usually appear in this 
particular form of learning so far as it is carried. The 
experiment may be extended by adding other trials to 
determine whether a plateau would then appear. A 
further extension may be made by trying the experi- 
ment with children of different ages. If opportu- 
nity offers, the correlation between ability in this task 
and in other forms of sensory motor learning might 
be found. 



24 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 



QUESTIONS AND TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION 

These questions are intended to stimulate reflection upon the 
wider applications of the experiment. 

1. What are the likenesses or differences between the problem 
confronting the subject in this experiment and the problem 
before the child in learning to write? 

2. What is indicated by the experiment regarding the sphere of 
the trial and success method in learning? Of what value is 
the attempt to analyze the conditions of the problem? 

3. a. What bearing does one's general attitude, as of confidence or 

the reverse, have upon progress? 

b. What bearing does physical condition have? 

c. What is the effect of special effort? 

4. Does a knowledge of the laws of learning have any beneficial 
effect upon the control of the feelings and one's attitude toward 
them? 

5. In what respect and to what extent is instruction of value in 
facilitating progress? 

6. What bearing do individual differences have on the develop- 
ment and application of instructions? 

7. Is the possibility of analysis greater or less in this experiment 
than in the child's sensori-motor learning? 

8. What is the role of repetition in such learning as this? 

9. How are trials made more correct — by a study of the move- 
ment or of the external result? 

10. What place has the study of the movement? 

REFERENCES 

Bair, J. H. "The Development of Voluntary Control"; in Psy- 
chological Review, vol. vm (1901), p. 474. 

Bryan and Harter. " Experiments in Learning the Telegraphic 
Language"; in Psychological Review (1897), pp. 27-53; (1899), 
pp. 345-575. 

Book, W. F. Psychology of Skill. 

Dearborn, W. F. "Experiments in Learning"; in Journal of 
Educational Psychology, vol. i (1909-10), p. 373. 

Ruger, H. A. Psychology of Efficiency. 

Starch, D. Experiments in Educational Psychology, p. 34. 

Swift, E. J. Mind in the Making. 



THE LEARNING PROCESS 25 

Experiment No. 2 
perceptual learning 

Problem. The second experiment deals with a type 
of learning in which the perceptual element is pre- 
dominant. This element enters into many forms of 
learning which seem at first sight to be mainly motor 
in character. In handwriting, for example, the per- 
ception of form precedes its reproduction, and also is 
made more precise by the effort at reproduction. In 
typewriting the comprehension of the relation of the 
letter positions on the keyboard to the letters which 
compose a printed or imagined word is at first chiefly a 
matter of perception. Finally, it is now recognized 
that in drawing the perceptual element is of more im- 
portance than the motor element. The ability to ar- 
range proportions and directions of lines in such a way 
that they will constitute the picture of an object is 
more a matter of seeing relationships in space properly 
than of skill in handling a pencil. Drawing a figure in 
which the elements present no technical difficulty is 
therefore an excellent means of testing the accuracy of 
perception and of tracing the development of per- 
ception. 

Material and method. For this purpose a series of 
six figures may be used (and these are reproduced in 
the Appendix). The experimenter should be prepared 
with a watch having a second hand, and a series of 



26 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

cards upon which the figures are drawn. The cards 
should be placed face down and arranged in order, 
with the first one on top. The subject should be pro- 
vided with a number of sheets of paper the same size 
as the cards. After a ready signal, the experimenter 
should hold the first card in such a position that the 
subject may see it clearly for ten seconds. When the 
card is lowered, the subject should immediately draw 
what he can of the figure and then turn or fold the 
sheet over so as to conceal what he has drawn. The 
figure should then be presented again and drawn from 
memory. This procedure may be repeated until the 
subject is confident that he has mastered the figure. 
The experimenter should observe and note any actions 
on the part of the subject which give indication of the 
method by which he attacks the figure. 

The comparison of instructed and uninstructed 
learning should be made in the same manner as in 
Experiment No. 1. 

The person who serves as experimenter should avoid 
becoming familiar with the figures while his partner is 
drawing them. 

Treatment of results. The experiment is not chiefly 
to measure efficiency or rate of learning, but to analyze 
and describe the mental process by means of which the 
learning proceeds. To this end it is essential that the 
subject make a careful note of the results by the most 
careful introspection he can make. He should have 
paper at hand upon which he can make brief notes as 



THE LEARNING PROCESS 27 

the experiment proceeds, and which he can elaborate 
when it is finished. Further data regarding the stages 
in the development of a perception may be gathered 
from the drawings themselves. These are to be ex- 
amined for the purpose of analyzing them qualita- 
tively rather than of measuring them quantitatively. 
The drawings themselves, and a table giving the num- 
ber of presentations for each figure, should be in- 
cluded in the report to serve as a basis of the general 
report. 

After each student has worked up his own results, 
they may with advantage be compared with those 
found by the other members of the class in the general 
report. In this way individual differences in the 
method of attacking the figures may be discovered. 
The general report should also make a comparative 
study of such matters as the order in which the parts 
of the figure are learned, the number of gross errors 
made in different figures, or different sorts of lines, etc. 
The general report should also give an analysis of 
the learning process in this experiment and compare it 
with the report of the study by Judd and Cowling, 
and should compare the process in instructed and unin- 
structed learning. 

Results of the experiment. The chief results of this 
experiment are to be found in the analysis of the proc- 
ess of perceptual learning, as suggested in the topics 
for discussion. The numerical data are here subordi- 
nate to the introspective account of the process and a 



28 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

description of the mode of procedure, as far as such can 
be made from an examination of the drawings them- 
selves. From such an examination it will appear, for 
example, that the scrutiny of such figures as these for 
the purpose of reproducing them proceeds, whether 
consciously or unconsciously, in accordance with cer- 
tain previously formed habits. Thus it will be found 
that, with very few exceptions, the examination of the 
figures begins at the left. In general there is a large 
amount of active exploration of the figures rather than 
a passive reception of impressions. The bearing of past 
experience in influencing the manner in which the ele- 
ments of the figure are organized, appears clearly in 
the manner in which groups of lines become intimately 
fused into an organic whole because they resemble 
some familiar form, and in the application of concepts 
or modes of interpretation such as line, angle, and 
number. Analysis and synthesis are both evident. 

Complete tables would show individual differences 
in the number of trials taken and the number of errors 
made, but space need not be taken for them here. 

The use of instructions for a part of the students in 
this experiment — in the manner in which they are 
used — serves rather to raise the whole question of the 
value of instructions in perceptual learning, and the 
type of instructions which are helpful, than to lead to 
any definitive conclusion. It is necessary to caution 
the second experimenter particularly about giving 
specific information about the figures in the instruc- 



THE LEARNING PROCESS 



29 



tions. The first experimenter must also avoid gaining 
familiarity with the figures while his partner is drawing 
them. 

Typical results are shown in Table I. 



TABLE I. SCORES MADE IN THE PERCEPTUAL- 
LEARNING EXPERIMENT 

(a) Average number of trials required to draw the figures by 
instructed and uninstructed learners 



Figures 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


Group I — 
Instructed. . . . 
Uninstructed. . 

Group II — 
Instructed. . . . 
Uninstructed . . 


5.4 
7.5 

7.7 
8.3 


4.2 

4.7 

5.5 

5.8 


3.4 
3.7 

4.7 
5.0 


5.4 

4.7 

6.3 
6.5 


4.8 
4.5 

8.3 
6.2 


4.2 
4.8 

5.3 
6.0 



(b) Number of errors made in drawing the figures 



Figures 



Group I — 
Instructed . . . 
Uninstructed . 



1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


137 
180 


110 
122 


48 

72 


161 
145 


118 
93 



97 
120 



It will be seen that the instructed learners do better 
than those who are uninstructed, except in figures 4 
and 5, and that the uninstructed do better in these two 
figures, except in one case. By reference to the copies 
of the figures in the Appendix it appears that figures 4 



30 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

and 5 differ in an important respect from the others. 
Instead of beginning with a straight line these two 
figures begin with a curved line. It is tempting to con- 
clude from these limited data that instructions may be 
of such a nature that, while they prepare the learner to 
cope better with a specific sort of problem, they impair 
his facility in dealing with a problem of a slightly dif- 
ferent sort. 

Extension of the experiment. The testing of this 
hypothesis by varying the instructions and the nature 
of the figures would be an interesting form of variation 
of this experiment. 

The conditions of the experiment might be varied 
also in other ways. Instead of setting before the sub- 
ject a figure that is to be copied, some piece of mech- 
anism, such as a lock, or a natural object such as a 
feather, might be set before the subject with the re- 
quirement that he make a diagram which would show 
the working relation of the parts. In the case of the 
feather a magnifying glass would have to be used so 
that the minute parts could be distinguished. Another 
type of variation would be the use of more complex 
figures. The study of age differences would give profit- 
able results, as in the case of Experiment No. 1. With 
reference to the effect of instructions, comparison 
might be made, not only with uniform instructions, but 
also with instructions which were followed throughout 
a longer series of drawings. 



THE LEARNING PROCESS 31 



QUESTIONS AND TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION 

1. Compare the perception of a figure before and after it has been 
scrutinized in detail. 

2. Mention all the types of analysis which were carried on in ac- 
quiring a mastery of the figure. 

3. Compare the importance of the impression factor and the 
meaning factor in perception as illustrated in this experiment. 

4. Describe the part which general ideas or concepts play in work- 
ing up such a figure. 

5. Give suggestions of methods to be used in developing such a 
perception. 

6. What false assumptions may be made in education concerning 
the child's experience when a concrete object is presented to 
him? 

7. What part does movement play in the development of per- 
ception? List all the movements you can that were used by 
the subject in this study. 

8. Describe so far as you can the changes in the relation of motor 
responses to perception as the child grows older. 

9. Compare language as a form of motor response with manual 
activities. 

REFERENCES 

F. C. Ayre. The Psychology of Drawing. Baltimore, 1916. 

Judd, C. H., and Cowling, D. J. "Perceptual Learning"; in Psy- 
chological Review, Monograph Supplement, vol. vin; also in Yale 
Studies, New Series, vol. i, no. 2, pp. 349-69. 

Judd, C. H. Laboratory Manual of Psychology, Exercise xvm. 

See also, Judd, C. H. Genetic Psychology for Teachers, chaps, i 
and ii, for a general discussion of the relation of the impression and 
meaning factors in learning. 



32 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

Experiment No. 3 
learning of the problem-solving type 

Problem. Problems of the type represented in this 
experiment may in general be described as being of 
such a nature that a grasp of their essential elements 
and their relations will lead to an immediate solution 
without the intervention of a period of gradual prog- 
ress or improvement in skill. The experiments which 
are here included are for the purpose of illustrating the 
process of analysis, which is the typical method in this 
kind of learning, and its relation to other types of 
learning. This experiment, as in the experiment on 
perceptual learning, is for the purpose of qualitative 
description and analysis of the mental process in- 
volved, rather than for quantitative treatment. 

The two parts of this experiment may be performed 
individually. We shall compare the results of naive 
procedure, and of procedure after a discussion of the 
nature of the problem. Let one of each pair of students 
who work together proceed according to the naive 
method, and the other proceed according to the in- 
structed method. 

(l) Naive method. According to this method the 
problem is presented in simple terms and the student 
is left to work it out without any discussion of the 
principles which are involved. The students who use 
this method should proceed at once to the directions 



THE LEARNING PROCESS 33 

for the conduct of the individual experiments (see, 
below, "a. Puzzle-box experiment ") without reading 
the discussion which follows in the next paragraph. 

(2) Instructed method. The purpose of giving these 
additional instructions to part of the group is to deter- 
mine whether or not a general notion of scientific 
method in attacking such problems as involve analysis 
enables one to attack them in a more efficient manner 
than otherwise. In attacking these problems endeavor 
to observe the following principles : — 

(a) The problem to be solved should be thoroughly- 
understood. 

(6) If possible, the problem should be broken up into 
parts or stages and the difficulties located. The diffi- 
culties should then be attacked singly to eliminate 
those which can be easily solved. 

(c) When the chief difficulty or difficulties have been 
located, the various possibilities which suggest them- 
selves for its solution should be reviewed and if their 
feasibility cannot be otherwise tested, they should be 
actually tried out. In mentally reviewing the various 
possibilities, previously acquired general experience 
should be employed to avoid the consideration of ab- 
surd or impossible solutions. The general procedure is 
to choose for consideration suggested solutions in the 
order of their apparent probability, and then to trace 
the consequences of each, one at a time. Proposed 
solutions which are found not to work should not be 
reconsidered until every other possibility is tried out. 



34 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

(d) The fact that a solution is possible should be kept 
in mind and the attitude of discouragement avoided. 
The mind should be kept in a calm and collected condi- 
tion, and confusion and random guessing should be 
avoided. 

a. Puzzle-box experiment 

Material and method. The material consists of a 
box, the opening of which is kept closed by a series 
of fastenings. (See Fig. 3, on the next page.) The 
student, of course, should not study the figure before 
opening the box. The box should be opened as quickly 
as possible without breaking or unduly straining any 
of the fastenings. The time from the attacking of the 
problem should be taken, preferably with a stop-watch, 
and recorded. Introspections should be made of the 
manner of solving the problem. 

Treatment of results. The subject should describe 
fully his experiences in solving the puzzle, touching 
such points as the part played by random movements, 
the clues which were discovered before any movements 
were made, the points at which a trial led to the cor- 
rection of a previous hypothesis, and the extent to 
which the relation between the whole series of steps 
was clearly recognized. 



n 




w^u 



36 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

b. Problem of drawing a figure by continuous lines 

without retracing (Tait labyrinth puzzle) 

Problem. The task before the subject consists in 
making an analysis of a two-dimensional figure so that 
it can be apprehended as consisting of a continuous 
line without retracing. 

Material and method. The material is the figure 
used and described by Lindley in the article referred to 
at the end of the experiment, and which is reproduced 
in the Appendix. (The reference should not be read 
until after the experiment has been performed.) Let 
the subject begin his scrutiny of the figure immediately 
after making note of the time. As soon as he pleases he 
may attempt to draw the figure upon a blank sheet of 
paper in the manner required. The figure may be kept 
in view and referred to during the drawing. No atten- 
tion need be paid to the technical excellence of the 
drawing. If the first attempt is successful, the time of 
finishing should be recorded. If not, the figure should 
be observed again, and so on until the figure is cor- 
rectly drawn. 

Treatment of results. The results should include the 
time taken for observation and drawing, the series of 
drawings themselves, and the subject's introspection 
of the process of analysis of the figure. The report 
should consist in a description of the method by which 
the problem was solved, based upon the introspections 
and a study of the drawings themselves. Such topics 



THE LEARNING PROCESS 37 

should be considered as the relation between the 
amount of random trial and of analysis or planning; 
the products of the analysis, or the simpler figures into 
which the complex figure was broken up; particular 
parts which were found to be crucial; any abstract 
reasoning which was employed. 

The general reports of both " a " and " b " should 
discuss individual differences in methods of procedure, 
in efficiency of learning, and any relation which may be 
found between method and degree of efficiency. The 
general resemblances between the results found by the 
different individuals and the differences between 
the results of those who proceeded by the naive and 
the instructed methods should also be described fully. 

Results of the experiment. The significant results 
from this experiment, as from the preceding one, con- 
sist very largely in the qualitative analysis of the learn- 
ing processes in this type of problem. In general the 
wide difference between problem- solving learning and 
sensori-motor or perceptual learning may be recog- 
nized in the fact that the solution of a problem of the 
puzzle type may be due to a clear recognition of the 
relationship of the elements of the problem, even 
though some fumbling and haphazard guessing precede 
the recognition. The method is here distinguished 
from the result. 

The objective record of the time required by the 
different members of the class, coupled with the intro- 
spective accounts of the methods used, throw light on 



38 



EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 



some of the facts of individual differences in time, 
method, and the relation of native tendencies or ac- 
quired habits to instructions in this type of problem. 
Table II gives the numerical results from the members 
of one class for both puzzles. 



TABLE II. SCORES IN THE TAIT LABYRINTH 
AND PUZZLE BOX 





(a 


represents 


.he ana 


ytic method 


t the trial and success 


method) 




Instructed 


subjects 




Uninstructed 


subjects 




Puzzle box 


Labyrinth 




Puzzle box 


Labyrinth 




^ 




"a 




ns 




-W 
























^ 


•JS 


® 




s 


& 




S 




£ 


3 
CO 


* 


&h 


N 


E-H 


3 

CO 


* 


S 


^ 


s 


1 


a 


0' 50" 


a 


7' 0" 


1 


a 


0' 50" 


a 


6' 50" 


2 


a 


1' 25" 


t 


7' 0" 


2 


a 


1' 3" 


a 


3' 45" 


3 


a 


1' 45" 


a 


13' 30" 


3 


a 


1' 10" 


a 


6' 0" 


4 


a 


2' 30" 


a 


18' 40" 


4 


a 


1' 30" 


a 


7' 0" 


5 


t 


2' 15" 


t a 


9' 0" 


5 


a 


2' 0" 


t 


12' 30" 


6 


t, 


2' 30" 


a 


11' 30" 


G 


a 


2' 30" 


a 


14' 30" 


7 


t 


2' 47" 


a 


5' 30" 


7 


t 


3' 35" 


t 


48' 0" 


8 


t. 


3' 25" 


a 


9' 25" ■ 


8 


t 


5' 50" 


t 


38' 0" 


9 


t 


5' 0" 


t 


3' 30" 


9 


t 


13' 15"* 


t 


3' 52" 


10 


t 


5' 40" 


a 


65' 0" 












11 


t 


6' 45" 


a 


14' 0" 













Correlation between the time required to solve the puzzle box and the labyrinth 
(by footrule method). R .49. 
* The subject was disturbed in his work and the time prolonged in consequence. 

Several facts are clear, as far as conclusions can be 
drawn from these rather limited data. There is a very- 
wide range between the time required by the slowest 



THE LEARNING PROCESS 39 

and the fastest in both cases, the ratio being 8:1 in the 
case of the puzzle box (excluding one doubtful case), 
and 17:1 in the case of the labyrinth. The individual 
differences in the two kinds of problem correspond 
roughly, the coefficient (R) being .49. These individ- 
ual differences are apparently so much greater than the 
difference which may be produced by brief instructions, 
such as were given in this experiment, that they render 
the effect of instructions undistinguishable as far as the 
time of performance is concerned. Instructions also 
appear to have had little effect upon the method used 
— except possibly in the case of the labyrinth. 

Extension of the experiment. This suggests several 
tentative conclusions which could be tested by a fur- 
ther extension of the experiment. First, the instruc- 
tions apparently were not followed, due to the fact 
either that some of the subjects were not accustomed 
to use the analytic method with this type of subject 
matter or that the analytic method was not their 
method in general. Second, the analytic method, when 
it was used, did not 'in several cases result in low time, 
perhaps because it was not properly understood or 
used, or simply because it was unaccustomed, or finally 
because trying to follow the instructions led to dis- 
traction and confusion. 

Besides testing some of these hypotheses, further 
experimentation might be carried on with the detec- 
tion of logical fallacies, or with problems in physics, 
mathematics, etc., making due allowance for differ- 
ences in training. 



40 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 



QUESTIONS AND TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION 

1. How far is the procedure of these experiments typical of the 
process of reasoning? 

2. To what extent is the nature of the problem dependent upon 
the kind of subject-matter with which it deals? 

3. Show with illustrations how the problems in this experiment 
differ from the problems of learning in the preceding experi- 
ments. 

4. What are the conditions of efficient learning in this type of 
problem? 

5. Do they differ from the conditions of efficient learning in 
Experiments Nos. 1 and 2? 

6. Is it more helpful to identify or to distinguish between the 
various types of learning? 

7. Give illustrations of problem-solving in school activities. 

REFERENCES 

Dewey, J. Bow We Think. D. C. Heath & Co., 1910. 

Lindley, E. H. "Study of Puzzles"; in American Journal of Psy- 
chology, vol. viii, pp. 430-93. 

Ruger, H. A. Psychology of Efficiency. Columbia University Con- 
tributions to Philosophy and Psychology (1910), Archives of Psy- 
chology, no. 15. 

Thorndike, E. L. Educational Psychology, vol. n. Columbia 
University, 1913. 



THE LEARNING PROCESS 41 



Experiment No. 4 

transfer of training in sensori-motor 
learning 

Problem. It is important to determine, not only to 
what extent and by what methods efficiency in various 
sorts of activities may be increased by practice, but 
also to what extent and by what methods the efficiency 
gained through practice in one activity may result in 
increased efficiency in other activities than those in 
which the practice is carried on. It has been said l that 
habits cannot, in the nature of the case, be transferred. 
The question cannot thus be solved by definition, how- 
ever, but must be attacked by a study of individual 
habits. 

Material and method. In this experiment we shall 
make a further study of the sensori-motor habit 
which was investigated in Experiment No. 1. The 
conditions of the experiment make it possible to change 
various factors in the problem in a variety of ways. 
First, we may use a different card, but keep the mirror 
in the same position. Second, we may keep the same 
card, but change the position of the mirror. Finally, 
we may change the position of both the mirror and the 
card. 

In order to determine whether the effect of these 
changes is due to the general nature of the change or 
1 See Bagley, Educative Process, chap. xm. 



42 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

to some accidental feature of the cards, or the relation 
of card and mirror, there will be two sets of changes 
used, each of which consists of changes of the general 
nature outlined above. One member of each pair 
should follow Series I, and the other Series II. 

Series I: — 

Set 1. Card No. 1 with cross below, mirror parallel 
to long side of base. (This arrangement was 
used in Experiment No. 1, and is not to be 
repeated here. Those who used this arrange- 
ment before should be the ones to complete 
this first series.) 

Set 2. Card No. 2 with cross below, mirror in same 
position as in Series I, 1. 

Set 3. Card No. 2 with cross below, mirror parallel 
to left side of base. 

Set 4. Card No. 2 with cross toward the left side of 
base, mirror at 45 degrees to sides of the base 
and at the left of the figure. 

Series II: — 

Set 1. Card No. 1 with cross below, mirror parallel 
to left side of base. (Not to be repeated here. 
Those who used this arrangement in Experi- 
ment No. 1 to complete Series II). 

Set 2. Card No. 2 with cross below, mirror in same 
position as in Series, II, 1. 

Set 3. Card No. 2 with cross below, mirror parallel 
to long side of base. 



THE LEARNING PROCESS 43 

Set 4. Card No. 2 with cross to the right (away from 
the left edge) , mirror at 45 degrees to sides of 
the base and at the left of the figure. 

Twenty-five trials should be made with each of the 
three positions of the cards and mirror, as in Experi- 
ment No. 1. 

Treatment of results. The numerical results should 
be presented in a table and charted as in Experiment 
No. 1. The curves of progress of the four different 
series should be brought together on one chart for 
comparison. 

The report should include a detailed discussion of 
the relation between the curves of the different series, 
and of the kind and degree of transfer which appears. 
For the purpose of furnishing a basis for explanation of 
the facts of transfer, the nature of the change which 
was made from one series of trials to another should be 
analyzed. The mechanism of the apparatus should be 
studied, and the relation of the hand movements and 
of the apparent movement of the pen in the various 
series should be described. 

The general report should include a discussion of the 
same matters as the individual reports on the basis of 
the wider range of material, and should particularly 
trace individual differences. 

Results of the experiment. This experiment throws 
light on the existence and the conditions of transfer of 
training in sensori-motor learning. It does not purport 



44 



EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 



to demonstrate that there is transfer of other sorts of 
training, or to indicate what the character or condi- 
tions of such transfer may be. It is desirable to keep 
this in mind in interpreting the results of experimental 



Time in 
seconds 
1G0 



120 



100 



80 



GO 



40 



20 























1 






































































1 
































































































































































































































































































































































































1 
































































































\ 
















































\ 
















































\ 
















































1 
















































, 
















































1 
















































1 
















































1 


















































1 










































































































































3 
















































1 


















































































































































































































































































































































^ 












































1 




\ 


















































\ 
















































V 












































_v 












































JT 




■ 


■•-. 


., 










































> 


















■- 


c:: >4^ 






— 
































IP 


1 1 1 i 











Trials 5 10 15 20 25 

Chart III. LEARNING CURVES IN EXPERIMENT NO. 4 



THE LEARNING PROCESS 



4.5 



investigations of transfer, and to avoid applying their 
results to other kinds of activities than those which 
have been subjected to study. It is probable that no 
one or two formulae will explain the facts. 



Time in 
seconds 
120 



80 



CO 



20 

























































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































l . 
















































~\ 


, 














































SU 
























^ 


























=<C^ 


y 




~- 


Z} 




J^ 


.r 








^ 






/ 


\ 








































1 






\ 



Trials 



15 



20 



25 



Chart IV. LEARNING CURVES IN EXPERIMENT NO. 4 
(SECTION A. SERIES II) 



The two charts, Nos. Ill and IV, represent graphi- 
cally the average results from two sections of twelve 
and eight individuals respectively. Curve No. 1 in 
each case is taken from Experiment No. 1. The results 



46 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

from two other sections are similar in the main fea- 
tures, as are those from the individual learners. The 
four series of twenty -five trials are numbered to corre- 
spond to the directions. 

If we had only the results which are represented in 
one or the other of these two figures alone, it would be 
difficult to say with any certainty that the difference 
in the speed of performance in the four groups of trials 
was due in any measure to transfer. It might be due 
wholly to a difference in the difficulty in the adjust- 
ment required by the various arrangements of cards 
and mirror. Some such difference apparently exists, 
since the corresponding curves differ somewhat in the 
two series. This same difference appears also in the 
other two groups of subjects. But, in spite of these 
differences due to different degrees of difficulty in the 
coordination of the individual sets of twenty-five 
trials, there are likenesses in the transition from each 
set to the succeeding sets which must be due to some 
more general factor. That the difference in the rapid- 
ity with which the set is learned is not due to the char- 
acter of the adjustments in each set taken alone is 
clearly demonstrated by the fact that the adjustment 
in Series I, 2, is exactly the same as that in Series II, 3; 
and that Series I, 3, is identical with Series II, 2. By 
reference to the charts it will be seen that precisely the 
same adjustment is made rapidly in Series I and slowly 
in Series II, while another adjustment is made slowly 
in Series I and rapidly in Series II. To explain these 



THE LEARNING PROCESS 47 

differences there must be some general factor, based 
on the effect which carries over from one series to the 
next. In both Series I and II, the second set of twenty- 
five trials is made much more rapidly than the first. 
There is evidently positive transfer from Set 1 to Set 2. 
In both cases also there is strong negative transfer 
from Set 2 to Set 3, and positive transfer again from 
Set 3 to Set 4. 

The details of the rest of the formulation of results 
are left to the student. The interpretation may be 
made along the following lines. Charts should be 
made which show the direction of the hand movements 
in tracing the successive lines of the figure, and also the 
apparent direction of the movements of the pen as they 
are observed in the mirror. From a study of these dia- 
grams several significant facts can be gained. It will be 
found that in one case the hand movements in two 
successive sets of twenty-five trials are identical, fur- 
nishing an identical element. Between two other suc- 
cessive sets the apparent direction of the pen move- 
ments as seen in the mirror are identical — another 
identical element. The interesting further fact will be 
discovered that in one of these cases the transfer is 
positive and in the other negative. An identical ele- 
ment can either facilitate or interfere. In another case 
in which both elements change there is marked positive 
transfer. 

Let us next examine into the relationship of the per- 
ceptual and motor elements in the successive series. In 



48 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

this respect we shall find, by a study of the diagrams 
which were mentioned in the preceding paragraph, that 
there are certain general similarities between the series 
between which there is positive transfer, and differences 
between those between which there is negative transfer. 
Every movement of the hand or apparent movement of 
the pen may be considered with reference to the upward 
and downward and the right and left directions. There 
are then four general directions possible : Upward to the 
right or left, and downward to the right or left. Know- 
ing the direction (stated thus in terms of the quadrant 
in which it falls) of each hand movement and apparent 
pen movement, the hand and apparent pen movements 
may be described as similar or different with reference 
to the upward and downward or the left and right di- 
rections. Thus the two movements /* and \ are simi- 
lar in upward and downward direction, and different in 
right and left direction. Using these general descrip- 
tive terms the relation between hand and apparent pen 
movements is shown in the following tabular state- 
ment : — 





Series I 




Series II 






In upward 


In right 


In upward 


In right 




and downward 


and left 


and doivnivard 


and left 




direction 


direction 


direction 


direction 


Setl. 


Same 


Different 


Different 


Same 


Set 2. 


Same 


Different 


Different 


Same 


Set 3. 


Different 


Same 


Same 


Different 


Set 4. 


Mixed. First three strokes 


Same as Series I 






nearly opposite 


(different 








in both directions), and last 








three strokes 


in nearly 








same direction. 









THE LEARNING PROCESS 49 

It is clear that the relations between the hand move- 
ment and the apparent pen movement in Sets 1 and 2 
in each main Series (I and II) are of the same genera 
nature, though of course the directions are not identi- 
cal, while between Sets 2 and 3 in each case the rela- 
tions are radically modified. Set 4 is a special case, the 
relations being mixed, and probably profits from all 
the preceding series. 

Let the student work out these facts in detail and 
state the results of the experiment in general terms, so 
as to indicate the relationship of the new coordination 
which was developed in the first series to that which is 
used under ordinary conditions of life, and the relation 
of the succeeding coordinations to those preceding. 

Extension of the experiment. Many profitable vari- 
ations of this experiment may be made. The order of 
the trial series may be changed to study different rela- 
tionships and to compare the difficulty of the various 
arrangements. An interesting test would be to place 
No. 4 first. Entirely new positions of the mirror may 
be tried out. The practice series may be extended so as 
to measure greater refinements of skill. For this pur- 
pose some more exact measure of accuracy may be 
used. The transfer effect in the case of children in this 
type of learning may be compared with that in the case 
of adults. Finally other experiments, such as the card- 
sorting experiment of Bergstrom, 1 or a substitution 

1 J. E. Bergstrom, "The Relation of the Interference to the 
Practice Effect of an Association"; in American Journal of Psychol- 
ogy (1894.), vol. vi, pp. 433-42. 



50 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

test, changing the symbols at intervals, may be 
made. 

QUESTIONS AND TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION 

1. What kinds of transfer are shown in this experiment? Explain 
any differences which appeared in the relation of the different 
series. 

2. Which of the proposed explanations of transfer seems best to 
explain the transfer found in this experiment? Consider, for 
example, identical elements; generalization, or the discovery 
of general principles; the concept of method; the development 
of ideals; the training of attention; the application of old 
habits in new situations. 

3. Give illustrations from everyday activities of facilitation or 
interference through identity of movements or of perceptual 
elements. 

4. Would you expect one formula to explain transfer where 
different mental processes are involved? 

5. Would you expect transfer to be greater or less in the case of 
higher mental processes? 

6. Give illustrations of transfer in the training given in the 
school through any of the processes mentioned in question 2 
that you think can bring it about. 

REFERENCES 

Colvin, S. S. The Learning Process, chaps, xiv to xvi. 
Heck, W. H. Mental Discipline. Second edition, 1911. 
Thorndike, E. L. Educational Psychology, vol. n. 



THE LEARNING PROCESS 51 



Experiment No. 5 

THE FACTORS IN MEMORY AS REVEALED IN 
ROTE MEMORIZING 

Problem. The purpose of this experiment is to de- 
termine the factors in memorizing which are of impor- 
tance in making certain methods more efficient than 
others. To simplify the problem, we first study rote 
memorizing, in which the associations of meaning are 
largely absent and in which learning depends on asso- 
ciations of an arbitrary sort. Nonsense syllables have 
been found to be most useful for the study of this kind 
of memorizing. 

The first problem we shall attack has been investi- 
gated for the purpose of determining the best method 
of presenting words in the teaching of spelling. 1 The 
problem as it has been studied is whether it is best to 
present words to the pupil visually, orally, by having 
him speak the words or write them, or by some combi- 
nation of these processes. It is not worth while to re- 
peat these tests in order to settle the question in this 
form, since it has been sufficiently well demonstrated 
that the best method in general consists in a combina- 
tion of the various sorts of presentation. The question 
we shall study is how far the most advantageous type 
of presentation is dependent on individual differences. 

1 See Meumann and Lay, in the References at the end of the 
experiment. 



52 EXPEEIMENTAL EDUCATION 

In particular we shall compare oral and visual presen- 
tation. 

The second problem is concerned with the value of 
artificial associations in learning material which has no 
inherent associations of meaning. In other words, we 
shall study the value of mnemonic devices. 

The third problem concerns the effect of the degree 
of thoroughness with which material is learned upon 
the permanence of the associations. 

The fourth problem concerns the effect of attempt- 
ing to recall at intervals during memorizing. 

Material and method. The series of syllables to be 
memorized are printed on cards which, except in oral 
presentation, are shown in turn to the subject by the 
experimenter. The lists of syllables used are given in 
the Appendix. The set of cards is held on the table fac- 
ing the subject and the successive cards are exposed by 
shifting the cards one at a time from the front of the 
pack to the back. The rate of presentation is one in 
two seconds, and is governed by the beat of a metro- 
nome. The series should be presented without a pause 
between the trials until the series is learned. 

Unless otherwise indicated, the method is to con- 
tinue to present a series until the subject is able to 
anticipate each syllable before it appears. The series is 
then considered to be learned to the threshold. The 
number of repetitions should be recorded by the exper- 
imenter. The number, including the final presentation 
which demonstrates the fact that the series is learned, 
measures inversely the rate of learning. 



THE LEARNING PROCESS 53 

1. In order to determine individual differences in 
the relative ease with which series of syllables are 
learned by oral and visual presentation, let Series I be 
presented by pronouncing the syllables distinctly at a 
two-second interval, governed by the metronome beat. 
Since the experimenter becomes familiar with the syl- 
lables in oral presentation, a second series, No. la, is 
provided, which is to be used for the oral presentation 
to the second subject. Series II may be presented 
visually as described above. 

2. The relative value of the methods which are to be 
examined in the remaining parts of the experiment will 
be studied by dividing the class into two sections, and 
having one section proceed by one method and the 
other by the second method. The division of the class 
is to be made in each case by letting one member of 
each pair use one method, and the other member the 
other method. The performance of each group may be 
judged by comparison with their performance in the 
first part of the experiment, in which all pursued the 
same method. 

In this part of the experiment we shall compare the 
efficiency of learning in which no special device is used, 
with learning according to the directions given below. 
Series III should be used. Those who are to use the 
uninstructed method should learn by the ordinary 
visual presentation, and should not read the following 
paragraph. 

Many devices have been used to assist the formation 



54 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

of associations which are devoid of meaning. Such 
methods are of use in memorizing dates, names, street 
and telephone numbers, etc. The common feature of 
such mnemonic devices is an artificial system of asso- 
ciations which forms a framework or skeleton into 
which the elements to be learned may be set. For 
example, in the present case the alphabet furnishes 
such a framework. For one who thinks easily in visual 
images, the letters of the alphabet may be thought of 
as arrayed in serial order, in a series of columns, or in 
some other convenient arrangement. As each syllable 
is presented, it may be placed in this framework ac- 
cording to the initial letter. Another method is to 
imagine the syllables to be arranged in groups — as in 
three groups of five. Each syllable of each group could 
then be placed and associated with its place. For one 
who thinks more readily in terms of auditory images, 
some form of sound associations may be used. For 
example, the initial letters of groups of successive 
syllables could be associated according to their sound, 
and perhaps related to some word. Rhythm is very 
helpful in forming auditory associations and should be 
taken advantage of. Some will find it more advanta- 
geous to group by threes, others by fours, or fives. 

3. The purpose of the third part of the experiment 
is to compare the permanence of memory of a series 
of syllables which are learned to the threshold, as de- 
scribed above, with the memory of a series learned be- 
yond the threshold. Learning beyond the threshold is 



THE LEARNING PROCESS 55 

to be accomplished by the subject's repeating the series 
orally five times after the threshold has been reached. 
The syllables should be spoken in a low tone and the 
experimenter should move away to avoid becoming 
familiar with the series. The permanence of memory 
of both the series which have been learned beyond the 
threshold, and those which have not, is to be tested 
by the so-called saving method. Let the series be re- 
learned on the following day by the same method 
of presentation as before, and the difference between 
the number of presentations necessary on the two oc- 
casions found. This difference represents the saving 
effected, and the saving is a measure of the perma- 
nence of memory. The class is to be divided as before, 
one half using one method and the other half the other 
method. Series IV should be used. 

4. The fourth comparison to be made is for the 
purpose of measuring the value, as a method in mem- 
orizing, of attempting to recall the series before the 
threshold has been reached. Let half the class as before 
learn in the usual manner, and the other half proceed 
as follows. Make an estimate, on the basis of the re- 
sults of the work already done, of the number of ex- 
posures which are likely to be needed to learn this, the 
fifth series. When half the estimated number of pres- 
entations have been made, stop for a moment and 
attempt to recall the series silently. Present the series 
and test the memory by the method of anticipation as 
before. Continue to attempt to recall the series after 



56 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

each presentation. The permanence of memory should 
be tested as in Part 3. 

In all but the oral presentation, the experimenter 
should avoid gaining any familiarity with the syllables 
of the series. The cards may be identified by the num- 
bers on the back. The subject should make no com- 
ments which would indicate to the experimenter what 
the syllables are. 

After each series has been learned, the subject 
should immediately make a note of any observations 
he may have made concerning the method by which 
the learning took place. He should make note particu- 
larly of any devices which are used in the learning. 

Treatment of results. In the individual reports the 
obvious comparisons suggested in the description of 
the method of procedure should be made and dis- 
cussed. The numerical results should be presented 
clearly in the form of a table. The questions and topics 
given below should be considered. In the general re- 
port these comparisons should be generalized and, in 
addition, individual differences in (a) the average 
number of presentations necessary for learning, (b) the 
kind of presentation or method which is most favorable 
to learning, (c) the permanence of memory and the 
relation of degree of permanence to the rate of learning 
should be given. These facts should be displayed in 
appropriate tables. 



Buiujv3J3J, sBvjisay 


| O «5 «fl «500 O «5 BOO O OO O O "A O 


1 


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1 


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H-fioe)r<iH^t-«(S01>0OOOI001ON 




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83 

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7 


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05 

05 


2.0 

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• -* CO rH i-H O* rH rH t-H ,-H r-l rH CO 1-H 0^ rH CO 


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58 



EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 



TABLE IV. NUMBER OF PRESENTATIONS NECESSARY 
FOR EACH INDIVIDUAL OF A SECOND GROUP IN 
THREE SERIES 





Series 














I 


Series II 




Series 


III 






and la 












Individual 
















Audi- 
lory 


Visual 


Unin- 
structed 


Difference 


In- 
structed 


Differ- 
ence 


A........ 


13 


8 


9 


+ 1 






B 


15 


10 


14 


+ 4 






C 


16 


18 


9 


- 9 






D 


21 


18 


11 


- 7 






E 


22 


16 






15 


- 1 


F 


23 


10 






8 


- 2 


G 


23 


27 






6 


-21 


H 


24 


14 


13 


- 1 






I 


28 


18 






28 


+ 10 


J 


32 


17 


2i 


+ 4 






K 


40 


34 






20 


-14 


L 


49 


17 


15 


- 2 






M 


61 


48 


33 


-15 






N 


78 


36 






19 


-17 


Average . . . 


31.8 


20.8 


15.6 


-3.1 


16.0 


-7.5 



Results of the experiment. Specimen results from 
this experiment are shown in Tables III and IV. Not 
much reliance can be placed on some of the results, 
since some of the members of the class failed to follow 
instructions carefully. There are some fairly clear out- 
standing facts, however. 

By reference to both groups it appears that the series 
were learned more quickly by visual than by auditory 
presentation by the majority of the subjects. Only 
individuals C, D, E, I, and M of Table III, and C and 



THE LEARNING PROCESS 59 

G of Table IV, learned more rapidly by auditory 
presentation. While the visual presentation proved to 
be the better on the average and for the large major- 
ity of the cases, the exceptional individuals must 
not be overlooked nor looked upon as abnormal. 

Apparently the instructions did not have a marked 
effect upon the rapidity of learning. While the in- 
structed group of Table IV gained over twice as much 
in Series III over Series II as did the uninstructed 
group, in Table III there was no appreciable gain by 
either group. This may be due to several reasons. 
There was some indication that the uninstructed group 
hit upon some of the devices mentioned in the instruc- 
tions independently. The extent of individual and ac- 
cidental differences may have covered up real differ- 
ences due to instructions. The instructions may not 
have been of the best. More prolonged practice may 
be necessary to profit by instructions. These possible 
explanations should be experimentally tested before it 
is concluded that instructions are of negligible impor- 
tance. This furnishes problems for further extension 
of this experiment. 

Learning beyond the threshold evidently produces 
greater permanence of learning, as is to be expected. 
The extent to which learning should be carried beyond 
the threshold is evidently to be determined by the 
purpose in learning, — by the degree of permanence 
that is desired. 

While attempting to recall during learning did not, 



60 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

according to the figures of Table III, lower the number 
of presentations necessary in comparison with continu- 
ous presentation, it did produce somewhat greater 
permanence. The results from other groups commonly 
come out in favor of the method of attempting to recall 
at intervals, both in the number of presentations 
necessary for first learning and for relearning. 

The averages in the last two columns of Table III 
bring to light individual differences in rapidity of first 
learning and of relearning, and in the correlation be- 
tween rapidity of learning and permanence. In order 
to make the inspection of the table easier the scores 
may be arranged in ascending order. This is done in 
Table V. Very large individual differences appear 
both in the first learning and the relearning, the ratio 
of the lowest to the highest score being about 1 to 6 
and 1 to 7 respectively. This is a very large difference 
among individuals of a group who are rather homog- 
enous in training and general ability. 

The calculation of a correlation coefficient is not in 
this case a very profitable proceeding as a means of 
measuring the degree of correlation, since the group 
includes several classes of cases, each characterized by 
a different relationship of speed of learning to reten- 
tion. As a very rough method of indicating the degree 
of correlation in general, however, we may average the 
relearning scores of the top, middle, and bottom thirds 
of the whole group, classified on the basis of the first 
learning scores. The averages of the relearning scores 



THE LEARNING PROCESS 



61 



TABLE V. SCORES IN FIRST LEARNING AND IN 
RELEARNING 





First learning 


Relearning 




A 


6.8 

9.8 

11.0 

11.4 

11.8 
12.2 

12.7 
13.6 
15.2 
15.6 
17.0 
18.6 

19.0 

20.2 
25.8 
31.0 
34.2 
37.6 


2.0 
2.5 
3.0 
3.0 
4.0 
5.0 

4.0 
2.5 
1.5 
5.0 
5.5 
6.0 

2.0 
10.0 
3.5 
2.0 
5.5 
4.0 




B 




C 




D 




E 




F 


Average, 3.25 


G 


H 




I 




J 




K 




L 


Average, 4.1 


M 


N 






P 




Q 




R 


Average, 4 . 5 





show a slight tendency to increase with the increase in 
the first-learning scores, indicating a very slight ten- 
dency for the learning of rapid learners to be more 
retentive than that of slow learners — so far as this 
test goes. But the slightness of the correlation is 
shown by the fact that if the highest relearning scores 
of the middle and highest thirds were exchanged, 
namely, the 6 and 10, the averages of these groups 
would be 4.7 and 3.5 respectively. 

A much more significant mode of examining such an 
array as this is to note the kind of cases which are rep- 



62 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

resented. It is apparent, after a moment's inspection, 
that there are those of high, medium, and low reten- 
tiveness among the fast, the medium, and the slow 
learners. We cannot accept the traditional view that 
slow learners are more apt to be retentive than rapid 
learners. So far as there is a general rule the latter 
seems to hold. But no one type of correspondence 
appears to be general. 

Extension of the experiment. This experiment may- 
be extended by varying the conditions and the material 
in a variety of ways. The effect of instructions may be 
studied more fully, as already suggested. The effect of 
learning beyond the threshold on permanence, and the 
effect of attempting to recall on both speed and perma- 
nence may be studied by having the same individual 
use the various methods with different series. All the 
different devices may be tested with series of words, or 
with vocabulary pairs instead of with nonsense sylla- 
bles. In such case the variability in the difficulty of 
material will be much greater. The effect of distribu- 
tion of the repetitions may be studied by taking series 
of the same length or greater length, and making a few 
repetitions of each series at a sitting instead of carrying 
them to the threshold at one sitting. The effect of 
distribution on permanence is particularly important. 



THE LEARNING PROCESS 63 



QUESTIONS AND TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION 

1. Are any parts of the series learned before the rest? If so, ac- 
count for the fact. 

2. What accessory devices, if any, are used to aid learning? Do 
the stimuli arouse any form of imagery? If so, what form or 
forms? What function does the imagery have, if any, in the 
learning process? 

3. Is it correct to assume that the imagery employed belongs ex- 
clusively to the sense through which the stimulus was given? 

4. Is there a definite point at which memorizing may be said to be 
absolute or complete? If so, how may it be described? If not, 
how may degrees of learning be described? 

5. Can the effect of learning in the early stages always be meas- 
ured? Why does command of the material sometimes seem to 
deteriorate in the early stages? 

6. An examination of recruits in Germany showed that they 
could recall little of what they learned in school. How is this 
result to be interpreted? 

7. Give illustrations of the value of learning of various degrees of 
completeness. 

8. Draw conclusions regarding the various factors or methods 
studied. 

9. What is the effect of the formation of wrong associations? 

10. Is rote memorizing in the school justified? Under what cir- 
cumstances? 

REFERENCES 

Colvin, S. S. The Learning Process, chap. XI. 

Ebbinghaus, II. Memory. Tr. by Ruger. Teachers College Pub- 
lications. 

Lange, R. Praktischcs Handbuch fur den Rechtschreibunterrichl. 

Lay, W. Filhrer dutch den Rechtschreibunterrichl. 

Meumann, E. Psychology of Learning and Vorlesungen zur Ein- 
fuhrung in die Experimentalle Padogojik, vol. n. 

Whipple, G. M. Manual of Mental and Physical Tests, p. 356. 



64 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

Experiment No. 6 

MEMORY FOR SENSE MATERIAL 

Problem. The problem of this experiment is to find 
the best method of memorizing sense material. Some 
of the same alternative methods tested in the experi- 
ment on rote memory might also be tried with logical 
memory. For example, one could determine the value 
of attempting to repeat the selection which was being 
learned before the memorizing was complete, or one 
might study the effect of memorizing beyond the 
threshold. In this experiment, however, but one phase 
of the problem will be attacked. The aim will be to 
determine whether it is better to memorize by the so- 
called part method, or the whole method. In using 
the part method, the learner memorizes a sentence or 
stanza or other small part at a time. In using the whole 
method one memorizes by reading the whole selection, 
or a fairly large part of the selection at one time. In- 
stead of using the whole method in the strict sense, it 
will be more useful to modify it by dwelling somewhat 
longer upon the more difficult parts of the passage after 
they have been discovered. This is sometimes called 
the combined method. 

Material and method. In this experiment each sub- 
ject may work alone. While the memorizing need not 
be done in the laboratory, it should be done during the 
laboratory period in order to have the time of day uni- 



THE LEARNING PROCESS 65 

form. In order that the material which is used by the 
class may be uniform, copies of a poem have been 
prepared. The selection is printed in the Appendix. 

In order to compare the two methods in question, 
the simple procedure which is likely to suggest itself 
at first thought will not suffice. This method would be 
to spend first a certain amount of time in memorizing 
with one method, and then an equal amount of time 
using the second method, and compare the amount 
learned by the two methods. The difficulty with this 
procedure is that there is a decided improvement in 
memorizing with practice, which operates to the ad- 
vantage of the second method used. This practice 
effect may be in a measure offset by using first method 
number 1, then number 2, and finally number 1, and 
averaging the rates of learning during the first and 
third periods by method number 1. Then, to make 
sure that the procedure is fair to both methods, still 
another precaution may be taken; viz., to let one half 
the class use the part method first and the other half 
the whole method. In the following plan, let A repre- 
sent one of each pair of students working together, and 
B the other : — 

A B 

Part method — 40 minutes Whole method — 40 minutes 

Whole method — 80 minutes Part method — 80 minutes 

Part method — 40 minutes Whole method — 40 minutes 

The work should be done in forty-minute periods, 
and should be distributed over two days. The whole 



66 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

poem should be read once by all to get the general 
course of thought. 

The material which is being memorized should be 
studied until it can be repeated once without error, at 
least so far as the learner can tell. When the part 
method is used, work should be continued until all the 
parts can be repeated continuously, and not merely as 
separate parts. If the material which is being studied 
is not quite finished at the end of the allotted time, the 
period may be extended. The efficiency of the methods 
is to be measured by the number of lines per hour 
which can be learned by their use. The subject should 
estimate, when using the whole method, the number 
of lines he can learn in the allotted time; but, if this 
amount is not learned, he should continue either then 
or on the next day until it is learned. If considerable 
time remains, he should learn another section. 

In order to compare the efficacy of the two methods, 
with reference to permanence, the parts learned should 
be relearned at the end of a week and the amount of 
saving effected should be tabulated. Each part should 
be relearned by the same method that was used in first 
learning. 

Treatment of results. Each student should describe 
in his report the order in which he used the methods, 
the amount of time devoted to study by each method, 
and should calculate and report the number of lines 
per hour learned by each method. The amount of im- 
provement, if any, from the first to third period should 



THE LEARNING PROCESS 67 

be calculated. The topics and questions given below 
should also be discussed. 

In the general report, a table should be given which 
shows the lines learned per hour by each student in the 
various periods and by the two methods. Those who 
begin with the same method should be grouped to- 
gether. The averages necessary to bring out the com- 
parison of the two methods should then be calculated. 
The practice effect should also be calculated. A com- 
parison of the degree of retention in the case of the 
fast and of the slow learners may be made. 

Results of the experiment. The tabulated results of 
this experiment for one section of nineteen are given in 
Table VI. After the somewhat detailed analysis of 
some of the preceding experiments, the student may be 
left with a few indications of the outstanding facts in 
this table. He may then elaborate the details. 

It appears, contrary to the principle which is gen- 
erally accepted, that the part method gives better 
results on the average, and in the case of the majority 
of the individuals, than does the whole method. In 
some sections the whole method gives better results on 
the average, but there are still some individuals who 
do better with the part method. This so far as first 
learning is concerned. In the case of permanence of 
memory, as we should expect, the whole method makes 
a better showing, though even here some individuals 
do better by the part method. Let the student weigh 
the statement that we should expect the whole method 



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70 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

to be superior for permanence of memory, and argue 
for or against it. 

It is possible that previous practice with the part 
method outweighs the inherent advantages of the 
whole method. This can be tested by inquiring into 
the previous habits of memorizing of the individuals 
who made better time by the whole and the part 
methods respectively; and by having some individuals, 
who do better by the part method, carry on more ex- 
tended practice with the whole method to find out 
whether the advantage is reversed. 

The correlation between speed of first memorizing 
and permanence of memory may be examined, as in 
the experiment with nonsense syllables. In the group 
under examination the same rule holds. While, in 
general, the rapid learners relearn more quickly, some 
of them relearn slowly and some of the slow learners 
relearn quickly. 

Extension of the experiment. This experiment may 
be extended by carrying on more prolonged tests with 
a variety of materials; by experimenting with different 
amounts which are taken as sections to be learned as a 
whole — particularly with reference to the individual- 
ity of the learner and the difficulty of the subject mat- 
ter; and by making the test with children of different 
ages under school conditions. 



THE LEARNING PROCESS 71 



QUESTIONS AND TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION 

1 . What, in psychological terms, are the respective advantages of 
the two methods? 

2. Do the objective results coincide with your experience in mem- 
orizing? If not, discuss the discrepancy. 

3. If there was improvement with practice, try to explain on the 
basis of introspection the cause of the improvement. 

4. Give directions for efficient memorizing. 

5. How far do you think memory in general can be improved? 

6. What are the limitations upon the conclusions to be drawn 
from a short experiment like this when applied to the general 
conduct of mental work? 

7. Is there a contrast between the fast and the slow memorizers 
in their preference for the two methods? 

8. Which method would be more likely to improve rapidly under 
intensive training? 

9. Does this contrast between the methods of memorizing in the 
strict sense of the word apply to study in the broader sense? 

REFERENCES 

Ebbinghaus, H. Memory. Tr. by Ruger. Teachers College Pub- 
lications. 

Meumann, E. The Psychology of Learning. Tr. by Baird. Ap- 
pleton. 

Watt, H. J. Economy and Training of the Memory. 



CHAPTER III 

EXPERIMENTS WITH THE SCHOOL SUBJECTS 

Experiment No. 7 

EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OP 
HANDWRITING 

Problem : Analysis of the writing movement. As in 
the study of the learning process we began with a 
motor type of learning, so in the study of the psychol- 
ogy of the school subjects, we may begin with one 
which is predominantly motor in character. Such a 
subject is handwriting. From the point of view of the 
observer the writing process is a motor coordination. 
That is, it consists in a complex organized movement 
which is made up by the cooperation of a number of 
simpler movements. These simpler movements work 
together simultaneously in the production of the com- 
plex movement; and at each successive moment one 
particular combination of movements is followed by a 
different combination. In short; the simpler move- 
ments work together harmoniously, both simultane- 
ously and in succession. This experiment will consist 
in an objective analysis of the writing coordination 
into several of its simpler components. 

Material and method. The analysis of the move- 
ment into the contributory movement of the arm (in- 



EXPERIMENTS WITH SCHOOL SUBJECTS 73 

eluding movements about the elbow and shoulder, the 
wrist, and the fingers, may be made by means of an 
adaptation of the apparatus used in Experiment No. 1. 
In place of the handle, used in the former experiment, 
there is a rubber band which is to be placed around the 
palm of the hand in front of the thumb and just back 
of the third joints of the fingers. The point of at- 
tachment with the rod which transmits the hand move- 
ment to the levers should be situated at the highest 
point of the band. The tracer record of the hand is 
reversed, but may be compared with the writing by 
turning it upside down. 

The experiment may be carried on as follows: First, 
place the two sheets of paper for the written and the 
tracer record with the edges parallel to the sides of the 
apparatus, and adjust the tracer so that it is comfort- 
able and follows the movements of the hand closely. 
Now take a record of several words, written in one's 
ordinary speed and manner of writing. To make com- 
parison easy, the same sentence may be written by all; 
for example, " A quick brown fox jumps over the lazy 
dog." Compare the tracer record and the writing so as 
to answer the following questions : — 

1. To what component (element) of the total writ- 
ing-movement does the arm and hand contribute 
most? To what element do the finger movements 
contribute? 

2. To what extent does the arm contribute in the 
formation of the letters? In this respect the indi- 



74 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

vidual differences among the members of the 
class should be particularly noticed. 
3. Distinguish the movement at the wrist from the 
movement at the elbow or shoulder, if such dis- 
tinction is shown by the record. Make another 
record, this time writing with as little finger 
movement as possible. 

a. To what extent were you able to exclude the 
finger movements? 

b. What modification, if any, was made in the 
appearance of the writing by the difference in 
the type of movement? 

Make a record with the tracer of a series of ten or 
more straight up-and-down strokes to resemble a series 
of saw teeth. Then make a series of dots on the paper 
on which the writing is done in the same relative po- 
sition as the upper and lower limits of the up-and- 
down strokes previously made, and make another 
record with the tracer of a series of up-and-down 
strokes, using the dots as limiting points. Compare 
the tracer records in the two cases and draw con- 
clusions. 

Treatment of results. The results of this experiment 
are not subject to exact quantitative treatment. The 
relative amount of hand movement used in the forma- 
tion of the letters may be estimated by comparing the 
height of the letters themselves with the height of the 
corresponding part of the tracer record. The same 
may be done for the " saw tooth " movement. In de- 



EXPERIMENTS WITH SCHOOL SUBJECTS 75 

termining individual differences, the records may be 
put into classes roughly divided under such rubrics as 
little, medium, and much, — as for example in deter- 
mining individual differences in the amount of arm 
movement used. The correlation between the amount 
of finger movement and the quality of the writing may 
be worked out. 

Results of the experiment. The more significant 
results of this experiment cannot be expressed in tabu- 
lar form. The report of such an experiment consists in 
the reproduction and interpretation of typical records. 
Three such records are shown in Figures 4 and 5. The 
following points should be observed and discussed in 
the report : — 

It is evident there is wide individual difference in the 
amount of arm movement in comparison to finger 
movement in the three cases whose records are before 
us. In the case in which the finger movement is least 
in amount there is still a certain amount, particularly 
in the earlier words of a sentence. It is of importance 
to note that the additional amount of arm movement 
which can be introduced voluntarily is limited. Long- 
established habits are not quickly changed. 

The tracer record is shorter than the written line in 
all cases, but more so in some cases than in others. Why 
is this? It is not due to the failure of the pen to follow 
the movements of the hand attachment. To work out 
this mechanical problem the various parts of the hand 
and arm should be diagramed. The solution of the 



76 



EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 



problem throws light on some of the details of the 
movement. 

The slope of the line of writing and the slant of the 



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Fig. 4. TRACER RECORD FROM A WRITER WHO USES LITTLE (A) 
AND MUCH (B) ARM MOVEMENT 

a. Written in the writer's usual manner 

6. Written in an attempt to emphasize arm movement 

individual letters is not always the same in the tracer 
record and the writing itself. Sometimes the slope of 
the tracer record varies from word to word. What 






adjustment of hand, arm, or fingers explain these vari- 
ations? 

The three records used for illustration are not 
enough to form the basis for conclusions regarding the 



a< 




W"£^ • 



ik 7f^- 








FlO. 5. TRACER RECORD FROM A WRITER WHO USES A MEDIUM 
AMOUNT OF ARM MOVEMENT 

a. Written in the writer's usual manner 

b. Written in an attempt to emphasize arm movement 

relation of the character of the coordination to the 
character of the written product, though they offer 
suggestions on this point. We have been taught to as- 



78 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

sociate arm movement with a particular style of writ- 
ing which is taught in business colleges, and is being 
adopted in the schools. Such an association does not 
seem to exist in the specimens before us. This problem 
is of major importance, and should be studied more 
thoroughly on the basis of wider results from the whole 
class. 

The results of the experiment with the saw teeth are 
easy to interpret, and need not be illustrated here. 

An important part in any experiment in which ap- 
paratus plays a prominent role consists in testing the 
reliability of the apparatus. In the present instance, it 
is likely to seem to a good many writers who have 
learned the arm-movement style of writing that the 
apparatus does not faithfully represent their writing 
movement. The criticism may be raised that there is 
some play in the levers which makes the traced record 
less complete than the movement of the hand and arm. 
In an original experiment all such possible criticisms 
should be anticipated. 

Extensions of the experiment. One form of exten- 
sion of this experiment, then, may consist in determin- 
ing the degree to which the movement of the pen repro- 
duces the movement of the attachment of the band 
which goes round the hand. The test may be made 
roughly by holding the plate of the socket-joint firmly 
against a sloping pencil, and then tracing a figure with 
the pencil, taking care to keep the pencil at a constant 
angle to the paper and otherwise parallel to its position 



EXPERIMENTS WITH SCHOOL SUBJECTS 79 

at the start. A more exact method is to construct a 
small three-legged stand, about three inches high and 
with rounded feet, to make it slide easily, and a vertical 
tube in the center large enough to hold a short pencil. 
The ball-and-socket attachment of the hand-band may 
then be fastened to the top of the stand directly above 
the pencil, in such a manner that the joint moves 
freely, and a record made by sliding the stand over the 
paper. If the tracer record does not correspond closely 
to the record made by the pencil the apparatus should 
be examined to see if any joints are loose. The two 
records should be very nearly identical. 

Another extension of this experiment, which may be 
made, is to conduct a practice experiment in the devel- 
opment of the arm movement, recording the progress 
by means of the tracer instrument. This will give 
some insight into the conditions of such a modification 
of a long-standing coordination, such as writing, and 
will give a basis for estimating the difficulty attendant 
upon the attempt to modify the handwriting habits of 
the pupils. 

The writing coordination of pupils themselves may 
be analyzed by means of the tracer. Comparisons may 
be made between the writing of pupils of different 
degrees of maturity, or between groups who have been 
taught by different methods. 

Another type of study of the writing coordination 
consists in a measurement of the speed and pressure- 
changes of the resultant total writing movement, in- 



80 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

stead of the analysis of the component elements of the 
coordination. Such a study makes possible the deter- 
mination of such features as the rhythm of the writing 
movement. Rhythm is present when the successive 
strokes are made in something like equal periods of 
time. In the young child's writing long strokes are 
made in much longer time than short strokes, while 
in an adult's writing the duration of long and short 
strokes may be equal. The determination of such facts 
as these requires some form of apparatus by which the 
speed of movement may be measured. The writer's 
article in the Psychological Monographs, cited in the 
list of references, describes an elaborate form of appa- 
ratus which may be used for this purpose. A simpler 
form could be set up, particularly if the pressure were 
not recorded, to make less accurate measurements. 
On the other hand, the pressure alone could be re- 
corded by means of a relatively simple table, set upon 
a lever which was kept in position by a spring and 
records upon a kymograph drum. 



EXPERIMENTS WITH SCHOOL SUBJECTS 81 



QUESTIONS AND TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION 

1. What conclusions may be drawn, if any, as to the proper func- 
tion of finger, hand, and arm movement? 

2. Do the results throw any light on the amount of individual 
difference in this respect which it is desirable to allow? 

3. What bearing does the fact regarding the function of arm 
movement have upon the most desirable position of the paper 
and slant of the writing. 

4. Make any observations you can upon other acts of skill, and 
note individual differences in the coordination. 

5. In what degree can the makeup of the coordination be con- 
trolled by the teacher or the learner? 

6. Distinguish between form and execution in an act of skill. 

REFERENCES 

Freeman, F. N. "Some Issues in the Teaching of Handwriting"; 
in Elementary School Teacher (1911), vol. 12, pp. 1-7 and 53-59. 

Freeman, F. N. An Experimental Study of the Handwriting Move- 
ment, Psychological Monographs (1914), vol. 17, pp. 1-54. 

Judd, C. H. Genetic Psychology for Teachers, chap. vi. 



82 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

Experiment No. 8 

a test of handwriting 

Problem. The grading of handwriting, either for the 
purposes of teaching or of supervision, is very uncer- 
tain because of the lack of a means of accurately judg- 
ing its excellence. In making a judgment it is necessary 
to take into account all the characteristics which are 
essential to good writing. These include at least the 
speed with which the writing is produced and the qual- 
ity of the writing itself. The speed can easily be meas- 
ured by requiring the pupils to write, for a specified 
length of time, material which has been memorized. 
Quality is not so easy to measure, because of uncer- 
tainty as to what constitutes good quality and of the 
difficulty of finding means of measuring quality when 
it is defined. Thorndike, in constructing his measuring 
scale, used three characteristics for quality; namely, 
legibility, beauty, and character. Ayres used legibility 
alone. The two investigators agree in taking, as the 
basis of judgment, a general unanalyzed quality or 
group of qualities. The method of constructing their 
scales is different, but the method of applying them is 
the same; namely, to judge by the general impression 
which the writing makes. The scales help by giving 
standards by which these general impressions may be 
given numerical equivalents. The scale which is pre- 
sented for trial in this experiment differs from the two 



EXPERIMENTS WITH SCHOOL SUBJECTS 83 

above mentioned in that one in using it does not at- 
tempt to compare the general impression made by the 
specimen to be judged with the impressions made by 
the specimens in the scale, but rather tries to analyze 
and rank the most important elements of the form of 
the writing which produce the impression of legibility, 
beauty, etc. 1 

The elementary characteristics of the writing which 
are assumed to constitute it legible, beautiful, etc., are 
four: (1) the degree of uniformity of the writing, (2) the 
quality of the line, (3) the correctness of letter forma- 
tion, and (4) the spacing or composition. It is neces- 
sary to explain what is meant by these categories more 
fully. 

Uniformity is applied particularly to two character- 
istics, slant and alinement, the latter including the 
height of the letters. It cannot be said that any par- 
ticular slant is the best, but it is clear that the slant 
of any person's writing should be uniform. Variability 
in slant may be of various sorts. In the first place, it 
may be due to a general lack of coordination, so that 
the variability follows no rule. In the second place, it 
may consist in an increased slant toward the end of the 
line, which is due to the lack of corrective adjustment. 
Finally, it may be due to occasional readjustments in 

1 The Thorndike Scale can be obtained from the Bureau of Pub- 
lications of Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City; 
The Ayres Scale from the Russell Sage Foundation, Division of Edu- 
cation, New York City; and the Analytical Scale from Houghton 
Mifflin Company. 



84 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

the position of the hand or paper, the slant remaining 
fairly uniform between these readjustments. Similarly, 
the letters should come to a common base line, and the 
same kinds of letters should be of the same height. We 
may confine our attention, for convenience, to the one- 
space letters. It is not easy to grade uniformity of 
slant and of alinement together, so these two categories 
have been separated in the charts. 

All the characteristics so far described might appear 
in a high degree of excellence, and yet the writing 
might be seriously at fault if the line itself were not 
clear and firm. The line should have evenness in width, 
indicating evenness of pressure upon the pen, or at 
least changes in width should not be great, abrupt, nor 
irregular. A moderate degree of even shading should 
not be penalized. The direction of the line also should 
not change in an uneven fashion, producing a wavy or 
jagged appearance and indicating lack of freedom, 
ease, and control of movement. The third category, 
therefore, is quality of line. 

The fourth characteristic refers to the arrangement 
of the lines within the letter itself. In general the point 
to be judged is the degree of conformity of the letter 
formation to the standard letters. In applying this 
standard the judge must avoid using the peculiarities 
of any particular style of alphabet as a guide, and 
must try to distinguish the requirements on which all 
English alphabets would agree. For example, all would 
agree that the " o " should be closed, that the last 



EXPERIMENTS WITH SCHOOL SUBJECTS 85 

stroke of the " a " should come to the base line, that 
the " t " should not have a loop, etc. Perhaps the best 
way to judge this characteristic is to look through the 
writing and try to estimate rapidly the degree to which 
the letters are well formed and clear. 

The fifth category, spacing, is somewhat more diffi- 
cult to analyze and rank. The aim from this point of 
view may be said to be — first, to so place the letters 
and words on the page that the words themselves pos- 
sess unity. The letters should be far enough apart to 
make them easily distinguishable, but should be close 
enough together to give the word a compact appear- 
ance. In the second place, the words should be related 
to each other much as the letters are related in the 
word. There should be enough space between the 
words on a line, and between the lines, to render each 
word distinct, but no more. The specimens on the 
chart illustrate the application of these principles. 

Material and method. In order to aid in discrimi- 
nating these different characteristics, and awarding to 
specimens grades according to their standing in each 
quality, a chart has been prepared. This chart is 
composed of five series of writing specimens, arranged 
in an ascending scale of excellence, each series repre- 
senting one of the qualities which have been described. 
Thus the first series represents different degrees of 
uniformity of slant; the second series, degrees of uni- 
formity of alinement and size; etc. Three degrees of 
excellence are distinguished in each chart. In all the 



86 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

categories these are given scores of 1, 3, and 5 respec- 
tively. The intermediate scores 2 and 4 may be used. 
The scores for letter formation may be doubled, on 
the assumption that this characteristic is more im- 
portant than the others. It is probably better to use 
the same scoring as in the others in making the judg- 
ments, and then double them afterwards. 

The specimen to be judged is graded according to 
each category separately, and given the rank of the 
specimen in the chart with which it most nearly cor- 
responds in each case. The total rank is calculated 
by summing the five individual ranks. Thus, if letter 
formation is given double value, the lowest possible 
rank is 6, and the highest possible rank is 30 (5, plus 
5, plus 5, plus 10, plus 5), and the range is 24. 

Several precautions are to be observed in making the 
judgments. The value of the method rests upon the 
fact that different features of the writing are singled 
out one at a time, and are graded by being given a rank 
in one of only three steps. The differences between the 
steps are marked, and the ease of placing a specimen 
should be correspondingly easy. 

This method implies, however, that 

(1) The attention is fixed on only one characteristic 
at a time. 

(2) The judgment on one point be not allowed to 
influence the judgment on the other points. 

(3) The same fault be counted only once. 

(4) General impression be disregarded. 



EXPERIMENTS WITH SCHOOL SUBJECTS 87 

These four rules, in fact, express different aspects of 
the same precaution, but it is worth the emphasis thus 
given. 

The experiment consists in judging, by means of the 
method which has been described, one hundred spe- 
cimens of writing of different styles and from writers 
of different ages. (In order to give some preliminary 
practice, ten additional specimens should be provided 
which are to be graded first.) No marks are to be 
made on the specimens themselves. Each one is given 
a serial number, and a record is to be kept of the indi- 
vidual ranks as well as the final rank assigned to each 
specimen. 

The individual reports should contain a table con- 
taining these data, together with the average rank as- 
signed to the group of papers. Each individual should 
also put the ranks which he has assigned into a chart 
to show their distribution. (For example of a distribu- 
tion chart, see the article by Starch and Elliott, in the 
School Review for April, 1913, p. 256.) In this case the 
units on the base line represent the possible ranks from 
6 to 30. Above each rank should be written the num- 
bers of all the papers which are assigned that rank. 

Results of the experiment. The results obtained by 
the use of the analytic scale with untrained judges have 
not as yet warranted a positive statement as to the 
possibility of obtaining highly consistent results in the 
grading of writing by different graders. We may first 
examine the record of the scores given by one group of 



88 



EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 



ten graders to 50 specimens of children's writing, and 
then consider their significance. In Table VII are 
given the scores given by the ten graders to five of the 
papers, chosen so as to represent different degrees of 
excellence. 

TABLE VII. SCORES OF TEN INDIVIDUALS GRADING 
FIVE WRITING SPECIMENS 



Grader 


Specimen 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


A 


8 
7 
8 
6 
7 

10 
9 
9 

12 
8 


14 
13 
10 
10 
19 
18 
15 
17 
14 
18 


14 
15 
16 
22 
21 
17 
17 
14 
18 
20 


18 
14 
20 
12 

22 
28 
24 
21 
20 
24 


28 


B 


23 


C 


28 


D 


28 


E 


28 


F... 


30 


G 


29 


H 


29 


I 


29 


J 


26 






Average 


8.4 


14.9 


17.4 


20.3 


27.8 







The examination of this table makes it clear that 
there is a good deal of variation in the grades which 
different untrained individuals give to the same pa- 
pers. In specimen 1 the range is from 6, the lowest 
possible rank, to 12. In specimen 4 the range is from 
12 to 28. 



EXPERIMENTS WITH SCHOOL SUBJECTS 89 

TABLE VIII. AVERAGE OF THE GRADES GIVEN BY 
TEN GRADERS TO THE SAME FIFTY PAPERS, USING 
THE ANALYTIC AND THE AYRES SCALES 



Graders 


Averages by 

analytic 

scale 


Variations 
from gen- 
eral average 


Averages by 
Ayres 
scale 


Variations 
from gener- 
al average 


1 


18.2 

13.7 

16.34 

15.86 

17.08 

19.05 

19.86 

19.8 

19.58 

19.64 


.3 
4.2 
1.6 
2.0 

.8 
1.2 
2.0 
1.9 
1.7 
1.7 


59.8 
52.4 
48.9 
47.1 
58.0 
63.1 
60.1 
56.8 
51.0 
70.7 


3.0 


2 


4.4 


3 


7.9 


4 


9.7 


5 


1.2 


6 


6.3 


7 


3.3 


8 


0. 


9 


5.8 


10 


13.9 






Average 


17.9 




56.8 




Mean Variation . . 




1.74 




5.6 



The examination of the variation among the average 
of the grades given by the different graders to the 
whole set of fifty papers may be more encouraging. 
These averages are shown in the second column of 
Table VIII. The mean variation of these averages is 
1.74 steps on the scale, the extreme range of which is 
24 points. This variation is in both directions from the 
average, so that about half of the graders are 3.5 
points or more apart in the average rank they assign to 
a group of fifty papers. For instance, in this group the 
third grader from the bottom assigns an average grade 
of 16.34, and the second from the top 19.8. This dif- 



90 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

ference of 3.5 points is about equivalent to the average 
progress made in two school years. In the case of an- 
other group of fifteen graders the variation was con- 
siderably less, being 1.49. 

A study has already been made of the variability of 
graders using the Ayres scale. See the article by Man- 
uel, cited in the list of references. In the present exper- 
iment a similar test was made and the final results are 
shown in the last two columns of Table VIII. 

The question which immediately arises is, Which of 
the two variabilities, 1.74 or 5.6, is the greater? We 
cannot determine merely on the basis of the amounts 
taken at their face value, since they are based on en- 
tirely different units. Various means of equating such 
coefficients of variability have been used or suggested. 
See the articles by Starch, 1 Weiss, 2 Pintner, 3 and 
Kelley. 4 

The most reliable method is the one which takes, as 
the measure of the units which are used, the actual 
range among specimens which are graded in terms of 
these units. If the same specimens are graded by two 
scales, and are distributed according to the scores 

1 Starch, D. " The Measurement of Handwriting "; in Journal of 
Educational Psychology (1913), vol. 4, pp. 445-64. 

2 Weiss, A. P. "A Modified Slide Rule and Index Method in Indi- 
vidual Measurements"; in Journal of Educational Psychology (1914), 
vol. 7, pp. 190-225. 

3 Pintner, R. " A comparison of the Ayres and Thorndike Hand- 
writing Scales"; in Journal of Educational Psychology (1914), vol. 
5, pp. 525-36. 

4 Kelley, T. L. "Comparable Measures"; in Journal of Educa- 
tional Psychology (1914), vol. 5, pp. 589-95. 



EXPERIMENTS WITH SCHOOL SUBJECTS 91 

which are given to them, we may assume that the 
range of one distribution roughly represents the same 
range in merit that is represented in the other. Since 
extreme cases are likely to be somewhat unreliable, we 
may take the extent of the middle half (approximately) 
of each distribution as representing equal ranges 
in merit. Thus, in the present case, the score of each 
of the fifty papers on the Analytic and Ayres Scales 
(based on the average of the rankings of the ten grad- 
ers) is as follows : — 

COMPARISON OF SCORES, USING 



Analytic 


Ayres 


Analytic 


Ayres 


scale 


scale 


scale 


scale 


8.4 


24.0 


17.4 


56.5 


10.8 


31.5 


17.5 


58.5 


11.2 


37.5 


17.7 


58.5 


12.8 


39.5 


17.8 


59.0 


13.4 


41.0 


18.0 


59.0 


13.4 


42.0 


18.2 


60.0 


13.7 


42.5 


18.3 


60.0 


14.0 


43.5 


18.3 


61.0 


14.1 


44.5 


18.6 


61.0 


14.4 


45.0 


19.5 


61.0 


14.8 


45.5 


19.6 


62.5 


14.9 


46.5 


20.3 


64.0 


14.9 


48.5 


20.3 


65.5 


15.0 


49.0 


21.6 


65.5 


15.0 


49.0 


21.9 


67.5 


16.0 


50.0 


22.5 


68.5 


16.1 


51.0 


22.9 


71.0 


16.2 


52.0 


23.4 


73.5 


16.4 


52.5 


23.7 


73.5 


16.5 


52.5 


23.9 


75.0 


16.6 


53.0 


24.1 


75.5 


16.6 


53.0 


25.0 


77.0 


16.8 


53.5 


26.1 


79.0 


17.1 


54.5 


27.5 


83.0 


17.1 


55.0 


27.8 


88.0 



92 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

The scores are arranged in ascending order in each 
case, and the scores which correspond in position in 
the two series do not necessarily represent the same 
paper. 

The assumption in this particular case is that the 
range 14.9 to 20.3 is approximately equivalent to the 
range 48.5 to 65.5 or, in other words, that 20.3-14.9, 
or 5.4 units on the analytic scale, are approximately 
equivalent to 65.5-48.5, or 17 units on the Ayres scale. 
One unit on the analytic scale is then equivalent to 
3.15 units on the Ayres scale. 

We are now in a position to equate the two coeffi- 
cients of variability, 1.74 and 5.6, by multiplying 1.74 
by 3.15, and thus turning it into equivalent units. The 
variability turns out to be 5.48 by the analytic scale, 
as compared with 5.6 by the Ayres scale. 

Neither of these is satisfactory if we are to compare 
ratings made by different investigators, unless we have 
each set of papers rated by a group of judges. Prelim- 
inary tests have indicated, however, that a much more 
reliable set of judgments may be obtained by the ana- 
lytic method when the judges are trained for their 
task. This requires ample discussion by a group of 
graders upon the first few papers they grade. After a 
careful study and comparison of their grades upon 
twenty-five papers, the variation becomes inconsider- 
able. Practice, with conferences, also greatly reduces 
the variability in the use of the other scales. (See 
Gray's article referred to below.) 



EXPERIMENTS WITH SCHOOL SUBJECTS 93 

Extension of the experiment. This is one type of 
extension of this experiment that could profitably be 
made. One might, if successful, go still further, and 
determine whether judges might be trained by using a 
set of printed instructions accompanied by a set of 
papers and their standard ratings. 

Further extensions of this experiment may be made 
by using some of the scales which have been developed 
in other subjects, and testing their reliability. The list 
of references below indicates directions in which fur- 
ther study might be made. Finally, the attempt may 
be made to work out and standardize an analytic scale 
for the measurement of attainment in some other sub- 
ject of the curriculum. 

QUESTIONS AND TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION 

1. Discuss fully the adequacy or inadequacy of this method of 
testing handwriting. 

a. Were any categories less satisfactory than others? 

b. Is the list of important categories complete? 

c. Are any particular specimens unsatisfactory? 

d. Is the use of the method unduly cumbersome? 

e. Compare the method with those of Thorndike or Ayres if 
you have used them. 

2. How might such procedure lead to a better appreciation of the 
qualities of good writing? 

3. How might such a method help the teacher in teaching? 

4. How reliable is the method for comparing different grades or 
schools? (The general report should include an especially full 
discussion of this question.) 

5. Add any suggestions which occur to you. 

6. Does an analytical scale require any more training for its satis- 
factory use than one which requires judgment from general 
impression? 

7. Is there any other method than that used by Gray (Texas 



94 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

bulletin) of determining the relative importance of the vari- 
ous categories? What is it? 
8. Look up, if you can, the method of grading some agricultural 
product and give a sample score card. 

REFERENCES 

Ayres, L. P. A Scale for Measuring the Quality of Handwriting 
of School Children. Russell Sage Foundation, Division of Education, 
New York City. 

Freeman, F. N. "Problems and Methods of Investigation in 
Handwriting"; in Journal of Educational Psychology (1912). 

Freeman, F. N. The Teaching of Handwriting. Houghton Mifflin 
Company (1914). 

Freeman, F.N. " An Analytical Scale for Judging Handwriting"; 
in Elementary School Journal (1915), vol. 15, pp. 432 -41. 

Gray, C. T. "The Training of Judgment in the Use of the Ayres 
Scale for Handwriting"; in Journal of Educational Psychology 
(1915), vol. 6, pp. 85-95. 

Gray, C. T. " A Score Card for the Measurement of Handwriting," 
Bulletin of the University of Texas (1915), no. 37. 

Manuel, H. T. "The Use of an Objective Scale for Grading 
Handwriting"; in Elementary School Journal (1915), vol. 15, pp. 
269-78. 

Thorndike, E. L. "Handwriting"; in Teachers College Record 
(March, 1910). 



EXPERIMENTS WITH SCHOOL SUBJECTS 95 



Experiment No. 9 
observation of eye movements in reading 

Problem. In reading, as in writing, we shall begin 
with the study of the motor coordination, as the proc- 
ess of reading depends upon the formation of motor 
habits, just as does 
writing. 

Material and 
method. For the 
accurate study of 
eye movements it 
is necessary to re- 
sort to some me- 
chanical means of 
recording them, 
such as the me- 
chanical recording 
device described by 
Huey, or some pho- 
tographic method. 
The outstanding 

characteristics of the movement may be observed, 
however, without the use of these refined methods. In 
fact, Erdmann and Dodge, who were the pioneers in 
the recent study of the eye movements in reading, 
merely observed the eye through a telescope. In- 
stead of using a telescope we may observe the eye 




Fiq. G. 



MIRROR FOR OBSERVING EYE 

MOVEMENTS 



96 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

movements in a mirror from behind the subject, as 
is shown in Figure 6, and thus facilitate observa- 
tion by getting close to the eye which is to be ob- 
served. 

The mirror is set in an adjustable frame so that it. 
may be close to the subject's eye, and at such a height 
that the top of the mirror is on the level with the lower 
edge of the pupil of the eye when the head is held erect. 
With this arrangement the subject can look over the 
mirror and read material which is held at a level with 
the eye, and at the same time the experimenter can see 
enough of the eye to observe its movements. The sub- 
ject should look toward the window, or other source of 
light, and the text which is to be read should be placed 
about on the level of the eye. It requires a little prac- 
tice to catch the small and rapid eye movements, and 
the method is at best a means to an approximate 
count of the movements which are made in reading 
each line of print. The subject should begin at a known 
place on the page, and look from the left to the right 
margin before beginning to read, for the purpose of 
giving a warning signal to the experimenter. The 
speed of reading should be measured by means of a 
stop-watch in the hand of the subject. The experimen- 
ter should, without taking his eyes from the eye of the 
subject, make note with pencil and paper of the num- 
ber of fixations made in reading each line. A frequent 
source of error is to count the eye movements, instead 
of the fixations. When this is done, either the return 



EXPERIMENTS WITH SCHOOL SUBJECTS 97 

sweep must be counted or 1 must be added to the 
count for each line. The subject should read silently 
and continuously. 

The number of pauses to a line, and the average 
number of words to a pause, should be calculated; first 
for the same sort of subject-matter, but for different 
lengths of line and different sizes of print. For this 
purpose there are first provided two texts, the subject- 
matter of which is printed in 11 -point type; the first, 
No. 1, having a length of line of 24 ems, and the other, 
No. 2, of 12 ems. In order to study the effect of 
the size of type on the eye movements, a third text, 
having a length of line of 24 ems and printed in 7- 
point type, is provided for comparison with the first 
specimen. In order to test the effect of the character 
of the subject-matter upon the eye movements, a 
fourth specimen, No. 4, is provided, having the same 
type and length of line as specimen 1, but having nar- 
rative as subject-matter. Finally, to test the speed of 
reading upon eye movements, a fifth specimen, No. 5, 
similar to specimen 1, in type, length of line, and sub- 
ject-matter is provided, which is to be read as rapidly 
as possible. All of these texts are reproduced in the 
Appendix, which see. 

Treatment of results. Each individual should cal- 
culate the average number of pauses per line and per 
unit length of line; the average number of words per 
line, and the average number of words perceived dur- 
ing one reading pause for each of the five texts. The 



98 



EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 



TABLE IX. RESULTS FROM THE STUDY OF 
READING PAUSES 



TEXT I 



Individual 


No. 

pauses 

per 

line 


Ave. no. 

pauses 

per 

em 


Ave. no. 

words 

per 

line 


Ave. no. 

words 

per 

pause 


Ave. no. 
pauses 

per 
second 


Ave. no. 

words 

per 

second 


1 


4.88 

2.89 

4.64 

2.64 

3.5 

5.0 

2.37 

3.8 

5.1 

5.7 

3.97 

7.07 

4.6 

3.4 


.20 
.12 
.19 
.11 
.14 
.20 
.10 
.15 
.21 
.24 
.16 
.29 
.19 
.14 


10.8 
10.0 
11.2 
11.3 
11.0 
11.3 
10.0 
11.3 
11.3 
11.3 
11.0 
11.2 
11.2 
11.0 


2.2 

3.52 

2.41 

4.17 

3.4 

2.3 

4.2 

3.4 

2.2 

2.0 

2.77 

2.43 

2.43 

3.05 


2.1 

1.51 

1.08 

1.84 

1.17 

2.78 

2.0 

1.82 

2.0 

1.50 

1.82 

2.87 

2.0 

2.35 


4.81 


2...... .. 


5.31 


3 . 


2.45 


4... 


7.68 


5...... 


3.67 


6........... . 


6.28 


7 


8.41 


8 


5.91 


9 


4.4 


10 


3.0 


11 


5.06 


12..... 


4.54 


13 


4.32 


14 


7.19 






Average 


4.25 


.17 


11.0 


2.81 


1.92 


5.21 



EXPERIMENTS WITH SCHOOL SUBJECTS 99 



TABLE IX (continued) 
TEXT II 



Individual 


No. 

pauses 

per 

line 


Ave. no. 
pauses 

per 

em 


Ave. no. 

words 

per 

line 


Ave. no. 

words 

per 

pause 


Ave. no. 
pauses 

per 
second 


Ave. no. 
words 

per 
second 


1 


2.94 
1.09 
3.9 
1.17 
2.0 
2.7 
.8 
2.4 
3.0 
3.1 
2.05 
3.37 
3.0 
1.94 


.24 
.09 
.32 
.09 
.16 
.22 
.07 
.20 
.25 
.26 
.17 
.28 
.25 
.16 


5.08 

5.0 

5.1 

4.91 

5.0 

4.8 

5.0 

5.0 

4.8 

5.0 

5.0 

5.1 

5.08 

4.91 


1.7 

4.61 

1.30 

4.19 

2.50 

1.8 

6.3 

2.1 

1.6 

1.6 

2.43 

1.48 

1.69 

2.53 


2.7 

1.27 

1.82 

1.95 

1.27 

3.15 

1.3 

2.62 

2.7 

1.6 

2.18 

2.12 

2.86 

3.22 


4.7 


2 


5.83 


3 


2.38 


4 


8 19 


5 


3.18 


6 


5 6 


7 


8.33 


8 


5.44 


9 


4.3 


10 


2.5 


11 


5.3 


12 


3.88 


13 


4.94 


14 


8.15 


Average 


2.39 


.20 


4.98 


2.56 


2.23 


5.05 



100 



EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 



TABLE IX {continued) 
TEXT III 



Individual 


No. 

pauses 

per 

line 


Ave. no. 

pauses 

per 

em 


Ave. no. 

words 

per 

line 


Ave. no. 

words 

per 

pause 


Ave. no. 
pauses 

per 
second 


Ave. no. 
words 

per 
second 


1 


6.34 

4.49 

7.09 

3.11 

4.5 

5.83 

3.41 

3.72 

6.4 

6.4 

5.58 

8.04 

8.37 

4.63 


.26 
.19 
.29 
.13 
.20 
.24 
.14 
.15 
.27 
.27 
.23 
.33 
.34 
.19 


15.5 
16.7 
14.9 
15.3 
15.0 
15.0 
16.7 
14.7 
15.0 
14.9 
15.0 
14.9 
15.4 
15.3 


2.4 

3.72 

2.6 

4.56 

3.33 

2.57 

4.9 

4.0 

2.30 

1.85 

2.68 

1.85 

1.84 

3.29 


2.6 

1.76 

1.32 

1.8 

1.11 

3.12 

2.2 

1.3 

1.9 

1.11 

2.14 

2.3 

2.5 

2.4 


6.4 


2 


6.53 


3 


2.78 


4 


8.22 


5 


3. 7 


6 


8.06 


7 


10.9 


8..... 


5.13 


9 


4.3 


10 

11 

12 


2.7 

5.75 

4.3 


13 


4.61 


14 


7.92 






Average 


5.56 


.23 


15.3 


3.03 


1.97 


5.81 



EXPERIMENTS WITH SCHOOL SUBJECTS 101 



TABLE IX (continued) 
TEXT IV 



Individual 


No. 

pauses 

per 

line 


Ave. no. 

pauses 

per 

em 


Ave. no. 

words 

per 

line 


Ave. no. 
words 

per 
pause 


Ave. no. 
pauses 

per 
second 


Ave. no. 

words 

per 

second 


1 


4.91 

3.12 

5.06 

1.88 

3.5 

4.33 

2.48 

3.03 

5.3 

5.1 

3.88 

6.87 

5.28 

3.11 


.20 
.13 
.21 

.08 
.14 
.18 
.10 
.12 
.22 
.21 
.16 
.28 
.22 
.13 


12.4 
12.0 
12.8 
12.3 
12.0 
12.3 
12.0 
12.5 
12.3 
12.5 
12.0 
12.8 
12.4 
12.4 


2.5 

3.85 

2.53 

6.56 

3.42 

2.84 

4.8 

4.1 

2.3 

2.4 

3.09 

1.86 

2.16 

3.97 


2.9 

1.75 

1.6 

1.53 

1.09 

3.03 

2.35 

2.1 

2.4 

1.9 

2.61 

2.67 

2.66 

2.57 


7.25 


2 


6.74 


3 


4.07 


4 


10.07 


5 


3.71 


6 


8.61 


7 


11 4 


8 


8 7 


9 


5 5 


10 


4.6 


11 


8.04 


12 

13 


4.97 
5.98 


14 


12 1 






Average 


4.13 


.17 


12.3 


3.31 


2.23 


7.27 



102 



EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 



TABLE IX (continued) 
TEXT V 



Individual 


No. 

pauses 

per 

line 


Ave. no. 

pauses 

per 

em 


Ave. no. 

words 

per 

line 


Ave. no. 

words 

per 

pause 


Ave. no. 
pauses 

per 
second 


Ave. no. 

words 

per 

second 


1... 


4.31 

3.4 

5.44 

2.05 

3.57 

3.46 

2.2 

3.09 

5.4 

4.2 

3.82 

5.51 

5.0 

3.6 


.18 
.13 
.22 
.08 
.13 
.14 
.09 
.13 
.22 
.18 
.16 
.23 
.20 
.15 


10.7 
10.3 
10.7 
10.6 
11.0 
11.3 
10.3 
10.8 
11.3 
10.6 
11.0 
10.7 
10.6 
10.6 


2.4 

3.29 

1.96 

5.15 

3.59 

3.26 

4.7 

3.4 

2.1 

2.5 

2.87 

1.81 

2.13 

2.89 


2.5 

1.67 

1.42 

2.0 

1.5 

2.95 

2.2 

2.16 

3.6 

2.2 

3.52 

2.57 

2.62 

2.38 


6 2 


2 .. 


5.47 


3 


2.79 


4.... 


10.3 


5 


5.38 


6 


9.64 


7 


10.3 


8 


7.4 


9 


7.5 


10 


5.7 


11 


10.13 


12 „ 


4.66 


13 


5.05 


14 


6.82 


Average 


3.93 


.16 


10.7 


3.0 


2.38 


6.96 



EXPERIMENTS WITH SCHOOL SUBJECTS 103 

average number of pauses made per second and the 
number of words read per second should also be cal- 
culated. Note should also be made of the ease or diffi- 
culty, comfort or discomfort, and attractiveness or un- 
attractiveness of the various texts. The general report 
should include a table in which these facts are brought 
together in such a way that individual differences and 
averages shall appear. These results should then be 
interpreted. 

Results of the experiment. A summary of the nu- 
merical results from one section of fourteen individuals 
in Experiment No. 9 is presented in Table IX. A word 
should be said regarding the degree of accuracy of 
these results to enable one to discriminate between 
those conclusions which are justified and those which 
are not. In the first place, the count of the number of 
pauses per line, which is the basis of all the formulation 
of results, is probably in all cases, and clearly in some, 
inaccurate. Note, for example, the record of eight 
tenths of a pause per line for Individual 7, in Series II. 
Though the lines in this series were short, it is contrary 
to all the evidence which has been obtained by an 
accurate method of recording to suppose that a person 
can read more than a line per pause. This, and other 
low records, is probably due to two errors: first, the 
failure to catch some of the eye movements; and sec- 
ond, counting the movements within a line instead of 
the pauses, resulting in two pauses being counted as 
one. The results then are, in general, lower than they 



104 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

should be in pauses per line, but we cannot tell how 
much. We cannot from these results, then, draw any 
definite conclusions regarding the absolute number of 
pauses per line or any of the facts which are derived 
from them. 

A further difficulty is due to the variability in accu- 
racy among the different observers. It is certain that 
some fell into the error which has been mentioned of 
counting movements instead of pauses, and there are 
undoubtedly differences in accuracy besides this. This 
makes it impossible to make any certain statements 
about individual differences on the basis on these data, 
except in reference to the relation of the different series 
to one another. Furthermore, there are some inaccu- 
racies in the individual calculations themselves, as is 
shown by the difference in the calculation of the num- 
ber of words per line, and by the failure of some mem- 
bers to check which should. For instance, the number 
of words per second should be the product of the num- 
ber of words per pause and the number of pauses per 
second, but it is not so in all cases. This is a type of 
inaccuracy which ought not to occur. 

Notwithstanding these errors, there is a fair degree 
of reliability in the comparison of the results obtained 
with the successive texts; since some of the errors are 
fairly constant, and the others, in the average results 
of a group, counterbalance one another. One other 
possible error which would affect the comparison of 
earlier series with later ones is an increase in skill in the 



EXPERIMENTS WITH SCHOOL SUBJECTS 105 

observers, enabling them to detect more fixations as 
they become more practiced. This would result in 
relatively too many fixations or pauses in the later 
series. This does not seem to be true to an appreciable 
extent, however, since the pauses per em, or unit 
length of line, are fewer in the last series than in the 
first. We may hold that they should be still fewer than 
they are in comparison, but it seems likely that this 
source of error is not serious. We may then proceed 
to compare the data regarding eye behavior for the 
group under the conditions of the five series. 

Take first the final product of the various factors, 
the rapidity of reading as expressed in terms of words 
read per second. Of the four texts which were read 
without any especial attention to speed, the fiction is 
read most rapidly by each individual, considerably so 
by most. On the average it is read more rapidly than 
the scientific text, No. 5, which is read rapidly inten- 
tionally, though there is not much difference in speed 
between reading fiction and intentionally rapid reading 
of scientific material. Of the three selections which 
differ in length of line or size of type, but are alike in 
subject-matter, that which is printed in small type is 
read most rapidly, on the average, and by eight out of 
the fourteen individuals. Between Texts I and II there 
is not much difference, the average being slightly in 
favor of the longer line. 

What now are the factors in these differences in the 
rate of reading? Compare first fiction with the other 



106 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

materials. When we examine the data in detail we 
discover that the more rapid reading of this text is 
partly due to a fact which decreases its significance, 
namely to the fact that the words are shorter, as is in- 
dicated by the larger number in a line as compared 
with the other texts of the same type and length of 
line. We should then expect more words to be read per 
second. The number of words per line also affects the 
number of words read per pause. The number of 
pauses per line is practically the same as in reading the 
first text, and hence if the words were of the same 
length the number of words read per pause would be 
the same. There is no superiority manifested, then, in 
the span of attention in reading fiction material. There 
is a slight superiority, however, in the frequency of the 
pauses themselves, as indicated by greater number of 
pauses per second. If this should be confirmed by 
more careful investigation it would indicate that ease 
of apprehension serves to lessen the duration of eye 
pauses rather than to increase their scope. 

If we examine the data for Text V, for intentionally 
rapid reading, we see that the gain was made by both 
an increase in the scope of apprehension at each pause 
(decrease in the number of pauses per line or per em) 
and a decrease in the duration of the pauses (increase 
in the number of pauses per second) . If we assume that 
the increase in the rapidity of reading of this text is 
due to a greater output of mental energy, it appears 
that such an increased output expresses itself both in 
increased scope and in decreased duration. 



EXPERIMENTS WITH SCHOOL SUBJECTS 107 

It only remains to notice the effect of length of line 
and type. The shorter line appears to result in a 
greater number of pauses per unit distance, but this is 
partly counterbalanced by somewhat lessened dura- 
tion of the pauses. The greater number of pauses 
seems to be easily explicable by the fact that at the 
end of the line there is likely to be waste, due to the 
fact that the amount left over from the next to the last 
pause is not enough to supply the number of words for 
a normal fixation, but is enough to necessitate an addi- 
tional one. If we multiply the number of ends of lines 
we obviously multiply the number of chances for this 
condition. These results and this explanation should 
be compared with Dearborn's discussion of the length 
of line and its effect upon perception in reading. 

The finer type seems to allow somewhat greater 
scope of fixation, but the number of fixations per sec- 
ond does not increase. 

Extension of the experiment. Two ways readily 
suggest themselves in which this experiment may be 
amplified or extended. In the first place the results 
may be gained by a more accurate method. This neces- 
sitates the use of some sort of accurate recording de- 
vice. The two general methods which have been used 
are the attachment of a lever to the eye by placing a 
very light cup on the cornea and connecting it with the 
lever by a fine thread. This method was used by Huey. 
The other refinement of method uses photography. 
Dodge and Dearborn photographed the bright spot on 



108 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

a falling plate. The kinetoscopic method, used by 
Judd in studing other eye movements, is also applic- 
able in the study of eye movements in reading. The 
photographic method has entirely superseded the 
mechanical lever method on account of its safety, and 
the fact that it interferes less with the natural eye 
movements. 

Any of these refined methods require somewhat 
elaborate apparatus and the mastery of a moderate 
degree of mechanical technique. This is an illustration 
of the fact that, in the laboratory investigation of psy- 
chological and educational problems, the ability to de- 
vise and manipulate apparatus of a suitable sort and 
of a sufficient degree of delicacy is often essential. If a 
student is interested in specialization in educational 
psychology, and the laboratory offers the requisite 
facilities, this experiment could well be extended by 
taking some photographs of eye movements in reading. 

The other mode of extension of this experiment is to 
carry further the method of observation. Other texts 
may be used to compare a variety of kinds of subject- 
matter. The method may be refined by having one 
observer go through a period of training in observation, 
and then observe the eye movements of a number of 
the other students. This will give some check upon the 
variability among the various observers. 



EXPERIMENTS WITH SCHOOL SUBJECTS 109 



QUESTIONS AND TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION 

1. Describe the process of perception in reading so far as the char- 
acter of the eye movements gives evidence concerning it. 

2. What evidence is there from the experiment as to: 

a. The influence of external conditions on the eye movements? 

b. The influence of the apprehension of meaning on the eye 
movements? 

3. How far does it seem likely that development of eye-movement 
habits is an important factor in learning to read? 

4. Consider the question of most favorable size of type, length of 
line, and arrangement of line in printing. 

REFERENCES 

Dearborn, W. F. Psychology of Reading. 

Huey, E. B. Psychology and Pedagogy of Reading. 

Judd, C. H., McAllister, C. N., and Steele, W. M. "Introduction 
to a Study of Eye Movements by Means of Kinetoscope Photo- 
graphs"; in Psycholgical Review, Monograph Supplement (1905), 
vol. 7, pp. 1-16. 



110 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

Experiment No. 10 

STUDY OF THE PERCEPTUAL PROCESS IN READING 
BY THE TACHISTOSCOPIC (OR BRIEF EXPOSURE) 
METHOD 

Problem. In reading, as in other products of per- 
ceptual development, expertness is reached by the 
recognition of increasingly complex objects. The char- 
acter of the eye movements which were studied in the 
previous experiment indicates that in adult reading 
numbers of letters and even words are grouped or fused 
in the recognition which occupies a reading pause. In 
this experiment this fusion is to be studied by compar- 
ing various cases in which it exists in different degrees. 

Material and Method. Since a reading pause con- 
sists in a very brief fixation of the eye, we may artifi- 
cially produce reading pauses by exposing reading 
matter for a brief interval of time, and thus study the 
successive reading acts in isolation. In particular we 
are able to determine how much of different kinds of 
material may be recognized in each of several succes- 
sive exposures, and thus how the recognition may be 
built up. This method may be used to study the differ- 
ences in fusion in the recognition of different kinds of 
material, on the assumption that the greater the fusion 
between the elements of the perception the greater will 
be the amount which can be recognized in a given ex- 
posure, or the fewer will be the number of exposures 
necessary to recognize the whole. 



EXPERIMENTS WITH SCHOOL SUBJECTS 111 

The apparatus is one of a number which have been 
devised to expose objects to view for a brief time. Be- 
cause of the fact that the exposure is made by a falling 
screen, the apparatus is called a fall tachistoscope. 
An opening in the screen exposes the stimulus card for 
a length of time depending on the size of the open- 
ing and the height from which the screen drops. Any 
of the commonly used tachistoscopes will serve the 
purpose. A small instrument in which the screen is 
operated by a spring instead of by gravity, devised 
by Professor Dearborn of Harvard, is especially to be 
recommended because of its compactness and slight 
noise. 

In making each exposure the experimenter should 
make sure that the subject is in a favorable position 
and ready to pay attention. He should then give a 
warning signal, followed in about one second by the 
exposure. He should be careful to keep the interval 
between the warning signal and the exposure as con- 
stant as possible. The subject should write down what 
he was able to recognize after each exposure, and 
should not give his reply aloud to the experimenter. 
The experimenter should not look at the face of the 
cards. The exposures of each card should continue 
until the subject is satisfied, but he should not be told 
whether or not his recognition is correct. The next 
card may then be shown. The subject should make 
introspective notes. 

We shall first compare the amount of fusion which 



112 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

exists in the recognition of groups of digits and groups 
of the same number of letters in short words. The 
lists are given in the Appendix, which see. 

The second comparison is between groups of non- 
sense syllables and groups of short words arranged in 
a sentence, and containing approximately the same 
number of letters. 

The third comparison is between the recognition of 
familiar and unfamiliar words. 

The fourth group of words is for the purpose of 
studying the " proof reader's fallacy " — that is, the 
neglect of errors in words. The existence of this neglect 
is an evidence of fusion or recognition of the group as a 
whole, rather than of each unit for itself. The subject 
should not know which words contain errors, nor 
should he be required to detect them or make special 
effort to recognize details. 

Treatment of results. The results may be made 
comparable by dividing in each case the number of 
objects (letters or digits) exposed by the number of 
exposures necessary to recognize them, to give what 
we may for convenience call the average number of 
objects recognized per exposure. The larger this num- 
ber the greater we may assume the fusion among the 
objects to have been. The individual reports should 
include a calculation of this number of objects recog- 
nized per exposure for the different classes of stimuli, 
with some interpretation of the result. The general 
report should generalize the individual results and 
determine individual differences. 



EXPERIMENTS WITH SCHOOL SUBJECTS 113 



TABLE X. THE AVERAGE NUMBER OF LETTERS OR 
DIGITS RECOGNIZED PER EXPOSURE 

(Based on the total number of letters or digits exposed, divided by the 
number of exposures necessary to recognize them) 











Series 




























-« 




































o 




■ 


« 








Individ- 


=o 


fe: 


&3 Co 
S W 




'| <* 






«> 

cu 




<3 


© 

5j 


s-2 


C JO 

2 ~ 


>©■ 
t3 8 


11 


^3 2 


53 






C5 


>-< 






«5 

1~H 






A 


1.5 


4.3 


2.0 


4.3 


1.2 


5.6 


3.0 


3.1 


B 


1.2 


5.0 


2.1 


4.4 


3.4 


7.0 


3.6 


3.8 


C 


.9 


5.2 


1.1 


4.3 


.7 


12.0 


4.5 


4.1 


D 


1.5 


6.0 


2.1 


5.9 


1.8 


7.0 


5.5 


4.3 


E 


1.5 


4.5 


2.9 


6.3 


1.2 


10.0 


5.4 


4.5 


F 


1.2 


4.0 


2.0 


6.5 


1.8 


14.0 


4.3 


4.8 


G 


1.5 


6.0 


2.9 


7.6 


2.6 


10.5 


5.0 


5.2 


H 


2.6 


5.5 


2.4 


7.2 


1.6 


12.0 


5.5 


5.3 


I 


2.7 


4.7 


1.2 


7.2 


6.7 


14.0 


6.3 


5.8 


J 


1.9 


6.0 


2.3 


8.3 


3.9 


14.0 


5.4 


5.9 


K 


2.4 


5.0 


2.7 


6.9 


2.6 


14.0 


8.5 


6.0 


L 


1.5 


5.1 


2.0 


7.6 


3.9 


14.0 


8.5 


6.1 


M 


1.9 


5.0 


3.6 


10.8 


3.4 


14.0 


7.7 


6.6 


N 


1.8 


5.8 


3.8 


10.1 


3.3 


14.0 


8.4 


6.7 


O 


2.0 


6.0 


3.5 


8.2 


6.5 


14.0 


8.5 


7.0 


P 


2.0 


6.0 


3.7 


13.0 


4.3 


14.0 


8.0 


7.3 


Q 


1.7 


5.7 


3.0 


15.0 


8.7 


13.0 


7.3 


7.8 


R 


2.0 


6.0 


3.1 


9.6 


13.0 


14.0 


7.3 


7.9 


Average 


1.7 


5.3 


2.6 


8.0 


3.9 


12.1 


6.3 


5.7 



Results of the experiment. The summary of the 
results of a group of eighteen individuals is given in 
Table X. The main facts are evident without the ne- 



114 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

cessity of a minute analysis. A comparison of both the 
individual and the average results of the various series 
or kinds of stimuli makes clear the wide difference in 
the range of objects which can be recognized at a 
glance, or which can be apprehended simultaneously, 
according to the degree to which the elements are or- 
ganized. These results do not in every case indicate 
the limit of simultaneous apprehension for a particular 
kind of stimulus, since the groups (words or sentences) 
were not in all cases large enough to reach the limit of 
ability of some of the individuals. It must be remem- 
bered also that most of the individuals were unprac- 
ticed in tachistoscopic work. 

Wide individual differences are also brought out by 
the results, though these are to be somewhat dis- 
counted by differences in procedure of the various ex- 
perimenters. In general, the individual differences are 
similar in the various series, indicating that a similar 
factor is present in the recognition of the various kinds 
of objects. These differences may be subjected to 
further analysis by turning the individual scores into 
percentages of the average, and noting the percentage 
differences between the extremes in each series. The 
correlations between the standing in the various series 
may also be worked out. One of the graphic methods, 
to be described in connection with Experiment No. 16, 
would be useful for this purpose. * There is no evidence 

1 See the chapter in Whipple for references to Messnier, Meu- 
mann, and others who have made a distinction between objective 
and subjective observers. 



EXPERIMENTS WITH SCHOOL SUBJECTS 115 

in these results to support the view that there are 
clearly separated types, however we may interpret the 
individual differences which appear. 

Extension of the experiment. It is a profitable exer- 
cise to identify the individual subjects in the various 
experiments, and determine how far individual differ- 
ences in certain of those which are similar show corre- 
lation. The results of this experiment may thus be 
correlated with the results of Experiment No. 12, 
" Apprehension of Number." 

The experiment may be extended by using still other 
kinds of objects, such as those of the spot pattern test 
(see Whipple for description). Children's recognition 
of words may also be studied and compared with their 
reading ability in general. This has proven to be a 
valuable diagnostic test. 



116 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 



QUESTIONS AND TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION 

1. Is there any resemblance between the perceptual process in 
reading and in the apprehension of the figures studied in 
Experiment No. 2? 

2. Argue for or against the proposition that adult or developed 
recognition of words, or groups of words, implies previous 
analysis and synthesis of the elements of which it is composed. 
Because the adult does not notice all the details in his rapid 
recognition of a word, is his recognition like that of the child 
who is in the first stages of reading? 

3. Why are groups of digits not recognized as are groups of let- 
ters? What is present in the one and not in the other? 

4. What individual differences are there with reference to the 
matter referred to in question 3 (the recognition of the ele- 
ments of a word)? 

5. Is there evidence of distinct types ? If not what is the nature 
of the differences? 

6. Are there disadvantages in very narrow or very broad scope 
of attention in word recognition? What would be the effect 
of the two on reading ? 

7. Does the difference in the fusion of different kinds of words 
indicate anything with regard to the possibility of increasing 
the scope of attention by training ? 

REFERENCES 

Same as for Experiment No. 7, and in addition: 

Freeman, F. N. Psychology of the Common Branches, chap. 4. 
(Also on the other school subjects.) 

Judd, C. H. Genetic Psychology for Teachers, chap. vm. 

Whipple, G. M. Manual of Mental and Physical Tests, vol. I, 
chap. vii. 



EXPERIMENTS WITH SCHOOL SUBJECTS 117 

Experiment No. 11 

EFFICIENCY OF READING 

Problem. The practical application of the knowl- 
edge of the psychological nature of reading may be 
made by studying the conditions which determine the 
efficiency of reading. There are at least three elements 
to be taken into account in a complete determination 
of the efficiency of reading; namely, (1) the rate of 
reading, (2) the amount which is retained, and (3) the 
extent to which what is read suggests relevant trains of 
thought. The first two elements may be regarded as 
concerning efficiency of assimilation of what is read, 
and the third element as related to the ability to use 
what has been read. Previous experiments have dealt 
with the first two elements. On this account, and be- 
cause these are the elements most easily measured, 
they are made the subject of this experiment. Atten- 
tion is called to the fact, however, that final conclu- 
sions cannot be drawn until the third element also is 
studied. 

Material and method. In the present experiment, 
measurements will be made of the speed of reading and 
of the amount retained in reading two halves from 
a passage to be selected by the instructor. The passage 
should be ten pages or more in length and of uniform 
subject-matter. A division should be made in the mid- 
dle of the passage. The subject should first read the 



118 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

first half of the passage at his ordinary rate, keeping 
the time with a stop-watch. He should then immedi- 
ately write what he can remember of it, trying to re- 
produce the ideas, but not necessarily the exact words. 
Let him then continue to read the passage, now reading 
as rapidly as possible consistent with a clear grasp of 
the meaning. When he has finished, he should measure 
the time required to read it and write what he remem- 
bers of it. 

Treatment of results. The individual reports should 
show clearly — first, how many words per second were 
read in each passage; and, secondly, what proportion 
of each passage was remembered. There are two 
methods of determining how much is remembered of a 
passage. We may designate these the verbal method 
and the idea method. Each individual in making up 
his report may use the verbal method. An exact form 
of the verbal method is to count the number of the 
particular words which were used in the original which 
are also to be found in the reproduction. The simpler 
procedure which may be used in this experiment con- 
sists in counting the number of words of the reproduc- 
tion which express ideas occurring in the original, and 
finding the ratio of their number to the number of 
words in the original. This is of course only a rough 
approximation, since the same idea may be expressed 
by one person in a few words and by another person 
in many. For the comparison of the two reproductions 
by the same person, however, it may serve. 



EXPERIMENTS WITH SCHOOL SUBJECTS 119 

For the comparison of the amount which is repro- 
duced by the different individuals, which is the concern 
of the person who makes the general report, the idea 
method is fairer. By this method the original passage 
is divided into thought units. 1 The thought units may 
be made more or less comprehensive, and it is therefore 
desirable that one person grade all the papers. Hence 
this method is recommended for the general report 
only. The one essential is that the principle of division 
into units be the same throughout. 

A third method which is useful in some cases is to 
measure the correctness of answers to questions in the 
passage read. 

The problems which should be attacked by means of 
the data which are furnished by this experiment are in 
the main two: (1) What is the relation between the 
speed of reading and the amounts which may be repro- 
duced? and (2) Through what modifications of the 
mental process is the speed of reading increased? Each 
individual may gain light on these questions by ana- 
lyzing objective and introspective results from his 
own experiments. The general report should contain a 
summary of such facts as are brought out in the indi- 
vidual reports and should, in addition, study the corre- 
lation between speed and reproduction when different 
individuals are compared. 

To give an exact measure of such correlation re- 

1 Cf. C. H. Judd, "Reading Tests"; Elementary School Teacher 
(1914), vol. 14, p. 371. 



120 



EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 



quires the application of a statistical method. A num- 
ber of such methods are described by Whipple in his 
Manual of Mental and Physical Tests, chap. in. 
Method B, the Pearson Method adapted to Rank- 
Differences, may be used in this case or the more de- 
tailed tabular form of statement illustrated below may 
be employed. 

TABLE XI 





Words per 


No. of words 


No. of ideas 


Individ- 
ual 


second 


reproduced 


reproduced 
















Parti 


Part II 


Parti 


Part II 


Parti 


Part II 


A 


3.7 


4.9 


710 


772 


33 


26 


B 


2.9 


3.7 


270 


325 


23 


29 


C 


2.2 


3.4 


500 


642 


26 


31 


D 


2.9 


3.7 


251 


291 


19 


19 


E 


2.9 


3.7 


270 


346 


23 


24 


F 


5.5 


7.0 


326 


120 


12 


9 


G 


3.2 


4.2 


556 


234 


19 


9 


H 


3.5 


3.4 


187 


174 


6 


10 


I 


2.7 


6.0 


486 


774 


28 


34 


J 


2.7 


3.6 


352 


248 


17 


15 


K 


4.7 


4.9 


235 


338 


15 


21 


L 


2.8 


4.9 


396 


484 


27 


31 


M 


6.9 


4.8 


500 


600 


16 


18 


N 


2.9 


3.7 


370 


325 


16 


17 


O 


4.7 


5.8 


425 


413 


23 


18 


P 


3.9 


9.3 


225 


156 


15 


11 


Q 


5.3 


5.2 


359 


513 


39 


29 


R 


2.9 


5.7 


393 


338 


22 


24 


S 


2.7 


3.7 


583 


615 


29 


45 


u 


3.3 


4.5 


705 


675 


55 


54 


V 


5.5 


4.1 


307 


340 


28 


26 


Total... 


77.8 


100.2 


8406 


8723 


491 


500 


Average. 


3.7 


4.77 


400.3 


415.4 


23.4 


23.8 



EXPERIMENTS WITH SCHOOL SUBJECTS 121 



TABLE XII. THE DATA OF TABLE XI REARRANGED 
TO FACILITATE VARIOUS COMPARISONS 



Relation between rapidity of reading 
the first and second passages 


Relation between rapidity of reading 
and increase in rapidity 


A 


B 


C 


D 


■3 
c 


"3 

a 

^ a 

b w 

=<5 


"S 

5 

S 

S-B 

•"S B 
B w 


"a 
3 

-S 

S 


•i 

"B 

•~ *» 

-B O 
'S.S 
B' w 

B5 


.8 

HI 

B 

*~ 

•Mi 

ag 

•~ B 
-B « 

'S.s 

B w 


"3 

3 

■B 
S 


S 

i 

■ 

B ■" 

03 


.§> 
'§. 

« ° 

Is 

C B 
g s, 

>-< 


3 
"2 

■■5 


.8 


.e 

I.SS 
>§ 

» B 
B °» 
03 


1 


6.9 
5.5 

5.5 
5.3 
4.7 


4.8 
4.1 
7.0 
5.2 
4.9 


1 
2 
3 
4 
5 


9.3 
7.0 
6.0 

5.8 
5.7 


3.9 
5.5 

2.7 
4.7 
2.9 


1 

2 
3 
4 
5 


6.9 
5.5 
5.5 
5.3 

4.7 


-2.1 

-1.4 

1.5 

-0.1 

0.2 


1 

2 
3 
4 
5 


5.4 
3.3 
2.8 
2.1 
1.5 


3 9 


2 


9, 7 


3 


2 9 


4 


9. 8 


5 


5 a 






Average 


5.6 


5.2 


6 
7 
8 
9 
10 
11 


6.8 


3.9 


6 
7 
8 
9 
10 
11 


5.6 


-0.4 




3.0 


3.8 


6 


4.7 
3.9 
3.7 
3.5 
3.3 
3.2 


5.8 
9.3 
4.9 
3.4 

4.5 
4.2 


5.2 
4.9 
4.9 
4.9 
4.8 
4.5 


5.3 
4.7 
3.7 
2.8 
6.9 
3.3 


4.7 
3.9 
3.7 
3.5 
3.3 
3.2 


1.1 
5.4 
1.2 
-0.1 
-1.2 
1.0 


6 
7 
8 
9 
10 
11 


1.2 
1.2 
1.2 
1.1 
1.0 
1.0 


3 7 


7 


3 3 


8 


2.2 


9 


4.7 


10 


3.2 


11 


9, 7 








3.7 


5.3 


4.9 


4.5 




3.7 


2.0 




1.1 


3.3 


Without 7 . . . 


3.7 


4.6 


12 
13 
14 
15 
16 


4.9 


4.4 


12 
13 
14 
15 
16 


3.7 


0.9 








12 


2.9 
2.9 
2.9 
2.9 
2.9 


3.7 

3.7 
3.7 
3.7 
5.7 


4.2 
4.1 
3.7 
3.7 
3.7 


3.2 
5.5 
2.9 
2.9 
2.9 


2.9 

2.9 
2.9 
2.9 
2.9 


0.8 

0.8 
0.8 
0.8 

2.8 


12 
13 
14 
15 
16 


0.9 
0.8 
0.8 
0.8 
0.8 


91 7 


13 


2.9 


14 


2.9 


15 


2.9 


16 


2.9 






Average 


2.9 


4.1 


3.9 


3.5 




2.9 


1.2 




0.8 


2.9 


17 


2.8 
2.7 
2.7 

2.7 
2.2 


4.9 
6.0 
3.6 

3.7 
3.4 


17 
18 
19 

20 
21 


3.7 
3.7 
3.6 
3.4 
3.4 


2.9 
2.7 
2.7 
3.5 

2.2 


17 
18 
19 
20 
21 


2.8 

2.7 
2.7 
2.7 
2.2 

2.6 


2.1 
3.3 
0.9 
1.0 
1.2 


17 
18 
19 
20 
21 


0.2 
-0.1 
-0.1 
-1.4 
-2.1 


4 1 


18 


3 a 


19 

20 


5.3 

5.5 


21 


6 9 






Average 


2.6 


4.3 

4.77 


3.6 


2.8 


1.7 




-0.7 


5.2 


Final Average 


3.70 


4.77 


3.70 




3.70 


1.06 




1.2 


3.7 




3.2 


4.5 


4.5 


3.2 




3.2 


1.0 




1.0 


3.2 



122 



EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 



TABLE XII (continued) 



Relation between rapidity of reading 
and number of words reproduced in the 
first reading 


Relation between rapidity of 

reading and number of words 

reproduced in the second reading 


E 


F 


G 


H 


"3 

3 

a 


as 

■§ 

!-§ 

Hi 


8 & 

•S ° 
*s 1 

3§ 
"o.C 

s.s 

-a a 
o j- 


3 

-3 
s 

1 

3 
4 
5 


P s 

11 

O £ 

!=> 

-a a 
1" 


5 
"3 

•^s a 

B w 

0=5 


"a 
3 
^3 

'S 
e 

>~i 

1 

2 
3 
4 
5 


-e 

a-» 
£ S 

!*& 

.£?.s 
ft3 


s i 

-« a 

'i s 
-si 


"a 
3 

e 


-a 
s-a 
2 s 

■§> 

"S3 tS 

§>"tt 

i! 

§■<=» 

o £ 


.3 

"3 

a 

-a 
e 
o *. 

&"« 

^Z 

3>§ 

~ a 
-a =o 

"^S 

a "* 


1 


6.9 
5.5 

5.5 
5.3 

4.7 


500 
307 
326 
359 
235 


710 
705 
583 
556 
500 


3.7 
3.3 

2.7 
3.2 

2.2 


9.3 
7.0 
6.0 
5.8 

5.7 


156 
120 
774 
413 
338 


1 

2 
3 
4 
5 


774 
772 
675 
642 
615 


fi 


2 


4 9 


3 


4.5 


4 


3.4 


5 


3 7 








5.6 


345 


611 


3.0 


6.8 


360 




696 


4.5 


6 


4.7 
3.9 
3.7 
3.5 
3.3 
3.2 


425 
225 
710 
187 
705 
556 


6 
7 
8 
9 
10 
11 


500 
486 
425 
396 
393 
370 


6.9 
2.7 
4.7 
2.8 
2.9 
2.9 


6 

7 
8 
9 
10 
11 


5.2 
4.9 
4.9 
4.9 
4.8 
4.5 


513 
772 
338 
484 
600 
675 


6 
7 
8 
9 
10 
11 


600 
513 

484 
413 
346 

340 


4 8 


7 


5.2 


8 


4.9 


9 


5.8 


10 


3 7 


11 


4.1 






Average 


3.7 


468 




428 


3.8 




4.9 


564 


12 
13 
14 
15 
16 


449 


4.8 


12 


2.9 
2.9 
2.9 
2.9 

2.9 


270 
251 
270 
370 
393 


12 
13 
14 
15 
16 


359 
352 
326 
307 
270 


5.3 

2.7 
5.5 
5.5 
2.9 


12 
13 
14 
15 
16 


4.2 
4.1 
3.7 
3.7 
3.7 


234 
340 
325 
291 
346 


338 
338 
325 
325 
291 


4 9 


13 


5 7 


14 


3 7 


15 


3 7 


16 


3 7 






Average 


2.9 


311 




323 


4.3 




3.9 


307 




322 


4.3 


17 


2.8 
2.7 
2.7 
2.7 
2.2 


398 
486 
352 
583 
500 


17 
18 
19 
20 
21 


270 
251 
235 

225 
187 


2.9 
2.9 
4.7 
3.9 
3.5 


17 
18 
19 
20 
21 


3.7 
3.7 
3.6 
3.4 
3.4 


325 
615 

248 
642 
174 


17 
18 
19 
20 
21 


248 
234 
174 
156 
120 


3 6 


18 


4 9, 


19 


3 4 


20 


9 3 


21 


7 






Average 


2.6 


464 


234 


3.6 


3.6 

4.8 


401 




186 


5.5 


Final average 


3.7 


400 


400 


3.7 


415 




415 


4.8 




3.2 


370 


370 


3.2 


4.5 


340 




340 


4.5 



EXPERIMENTS WITH SCHOOL SUBJECTS 123 



TABLE XII (continued) 



Relation between increase in rapidity 

and increase or decrease in words and ideas 

reproduced 


Relation between rate of reading, 

gain or loss in rate and gain or 

loss in reproduction 


I 


J 


"a 
a 

•S 

s 


o 

,s 

'§. 

a 
«-. 

s 
•<- -a 

1 2 


"2 Si 

« s 

S a 

to O 

|& 


« 1 

=> S 

11 


•S 
-S 

§, 

a 


e 

S 

s 

8 


.g 

■8 

a 

a 
05 


3> 

s, 

.s 
e 
s 


13 

-S 

o 

§, 

o 

.s 

a 
a 

>-< 


3 

-a 

u 
a 

6 
►5 


1 


5.4 
3.3 
2.8 
2.1 
1.5 


- 69 
288 

- 55 

- 88 
-206 


- 4 
6 
2 
4 

- 3 


3.9 
2.7 
2.9 
2.8 
5.5 


21. 
5. 
20. 
19. 
17. 


6.9 
5.5 
5.5 
5.3 

4.7 


-2.1 
1.5 

-1.4 
-0.1 

.2 


100 

-206 

33 

154 
- 12 


2 


2 


— 3 


3 


— 2 


4 


— 10 


5 


— 5 








3.0 


9 


1 


3.6 




5.6 


- .4 


14 


- 4 


6 


1.2 
1.2 
1.2 
1.1 
1.0 
1.0 


62 

- 30 
142 

- 12 
-322 

32 


- 7 

- 1 
5 

- 5 
-10 

16 


3.7 
3.3 

2.2 
4.7 
3.2 

2.7 


9. 
1. 

6. 
18. 

7. 
10. 


4.7 
3.9 
3.7 
3.5 
3.3 
3.2 


1.1 
5.4 
1.2 
-0.1 
-1.2 
1.0 


103 

- 69 

- 62 

- 13 

- 30 
-322 


6 


7 


— 4 


8 


— 7 


9 


10 


10 


— 1 


11 


— 10 






Average 


1.1 


- 21 


- 0.33 


3.3 




3.7 


1.6 


- 47 


- 1 


12 


.9 

.8 
.8 
.8 
.8 


-104 
55 
40 
76 

- 45 


- 2 
6 
.... 

1 


2.7 
2.9 
2.9 
2.9 

2.9 


3. 
13. 

14. 
15. 
16. 


2.9 
2.9 
2.9 
2.9 
2.9 


2.8 
.8 
.8 
.8 
.8 


- 55 
55 

40 
76 

- 45 


2 


13 


6 


14 




15 


1 


16 


1 






Average 


.8 


4 


1 


2.9 




2.9 


1.2 


14 


2.5 


17 


.2 

- .1 

- .1 
-1.4 
-2.1 


103 

— 13 

154 

33 

100 


6 

10 

-10 

- 2 
2 


4.7 
3.5 
5.3 
5.5 
6.9 


4. 

2. 
11. 
12. 

8. 


2.8 
2.7 
2.7 
2.7 
2.2 


2.1 
3.3 
1.0 
.9 
1.2 


88 
288 

32 

-104 

142 


4 


18 


6 


19 


16 


20 


- 2 


21 


5 






Average 


- .7 


75 


1 


5.2 




2.6 


1.7 


89 


6 


Final average 


1.2 


15 


- .71 


3.7 




3.7 


1.1 


15 


.75 




1.0 


33 


1 


3.2 




3.2 


1.0 


33 


1 



124 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

Results of the experiment. The summary results of 
this experiment are presented in Table XL These 
results have been reformulated to facilitate comparison 
in Table XII. The data are presented in the general 
table in order that one may follow the record of any 
individual throughout the table. In Table XII the 
individuals are rearranged in each section so as to put 
the scores into regularly descending order. 

The first comparison to be made is between the ra- 
pidity of reading in the first and second halves of the 
selections. The increase in rapidity as a result of the 
effort to read rapidly is large for the class as a whole, 
being 27 per cent if we use the averages, and 41 per 
cent if we use the medians. 

The more particular question which is presented by 
our results concerns the relationship between the 
standing of the individual subjects in rapidity of read- 
ing of the two halves of the selections. Are those who 
read rapidly in the reading at the ordinary rate the 
most rapid readers when they try to increase the speed? 
This is the type of problem which involves the calcula- 
tion of correlation. If the order of the scores in the two 
series is the same, or if there is any more correspon- 
dence than would be present by pure chance, the cor- 
relation is positive. If the order is reversed, partly or 
wholly, the correlation is negative. The more precise 
methods of calculating or representing the degree of 
correlation will be illustrated in Experiment No. 16. 
We shall be content here with the arrangement of the 



EXPERIMENTS WITH SCHOOL SUBJECTS 125 

data in such a way as to facilitate an inspection of 
them, and the detection of the outstanding facts of 
correlation. 

Sections A and B present the data regarding the cor- 
relation between the speed of reading of the class in the 
two parts of the selection. In Section A the individu- 
als are arranged in the order of the rapidity with which 
they read the first half, and in Section B in the order of 
rapidity of reading the second half. As a very rough 
method of estimating the correlation the series are 
divided into four approximately equal groups, and 
the average is given for each group. The averages, of 
course, decrease as one goes down the column in the 
left-hand column in each section. If the averages of 
the right-hand column also decrease in the same order 
there is probably some correlation. Inspection of the 
individual scores makes possible more detailed state- 
ments. 

It appears that there is some correlation between 
the rapidity of the first and second readings. In gen- 
eral, those who read rapidly in the first part read rap- 
idly also in the second part. Those who read most 
rapidly in the second part, however, were not as rapid 
in the first part as were the second group. Those who 
read most rapidly the first time apparently were read- 
ing nearly at their maximum and did not increase their 
speed (with one exception), but actually fell off in the 
second reading. All the other groups, as appears from 
Section C, increased their speed materially. But while 



126 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

some of the slow readers in the first half of the test read 
rapidly in the second half, those who were slow when 
they read under pressure were in the main slow when 
they read at their natural rate. We may conclude from 
these facts that those who read most rapidly in the test 
for natural reading were reading about as fast as they 
could. Some of those who read more slowly were actu- 
ally capable of more rapid reading than the most rapid 
readers in the first test; and some of those who were 
toward the bottom of the class in the first test ranked 
in the top quarter in the second. Some of the slow 
readers in the first test, however, while capable of some 
increase in speed, remained at the bottom; and very 
rarely did a rapid reader in the first test fall toward the 
bottom in the second. 

Sections C and D indicate that the slower readers in 
the first test, while they in general remained below the 
rapid readers when they intentionally speeded up, yet 
gained more, absolutely, and very much more rela- 
tively, than their rapid companions. These facts taken 
together indicate that, so far as a single test can be 
relied upon, the slow readers were slow partly because 
of some native or deep-seated acquired difference, but 
that the difference was in most cases greater than 
necessary since it could be overcome by a little effort. 

From a study of Sections E to H, which show the 
relationship between rapidity of reading and the 
amount which is reproduced it appears that there is a 
diversity of cases. If we examine Sections E and G we 



EXPERIMENTS WITH SCHOOL SUBJECTS 127 

see that some rapid readers remember a large amount 
of what they read — for example, No. 1 in Section E 
and No. 3 in Section G. It also appears from the same 
sections that some of the slow readers — as Nos. 18, 
20, and 21 in Section E, and Nos. 18 and 20 in Section 
G — reproduce a large amount. In the same manner it 
may be shown that there are both fast readers and slow 
readers who remembered little of what they read. 
Columns F and H show the converse of these facts. 

While there are individual cases which show a cor- 
respondence between speed and reproduction, and 
other cases in which there is a wide discrepancy be- 
tween the two elements, there may still be in general 
a positive or a negative correlation. If there is a large 
amount of correlation, either positive or negative, it 
should be indicated by the averages of the groups in 
the second column of each section. There is clearly no 
strongly marked positive correlation, but, on the other 
hand, some negative correlation. In each case the five 
most rapid readers reproduce less than the five slowest, 
and the five who reproduce most read more slowly than 
the five who reproduce least. 

These facts may be summarized in the following 
statements : — 

Some individuals read rapidly without sacrifice to 
comprehension, while others attain speed at the ex- 
pense of comprehension. The latter are slightly more 
numerous than the former. 

Some individuals read slowly without a correspond- 



128 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

ing gain in comprehension, while others sacrifice speed 
to an unusually high degree of comprehension. The 
latter are slightly more numerous than the former. 

Section I presents the data for the comparison of the 
rate of increase or decrease in speed from the first to 
the second reading, with the increase or decrease in the 
number of words or ideas reproduced. There is a wide 
diversity among individuals and no clear general re- 
sult. The most that can be said in general is that the 
increase in speed for the class as a whole, which 
amounts to twelve words per second on the average, or 
about 32 per cent, does not result in any diminution of 
the amount reproduced. This appears to be a clear 
gain for the class as a whole. 

Among individuals there is a great diversity. Indi- 
vidual No. 2, for example, increased 3.3 words per 
second in rate of reading, and gained 288 words and 6 
ideas in reproduction. This person read slowly in the 
first reading, the rate being 2.7 words per second. An- 
other individual, No. 17, who read at approximately 
the same rate during the two readings (4.7 and 4.9 
respectively) increased the amount reproduced by 103 
words and 6 ideas. On the other hand, No. 5, who 
gained 1.5 words in rate of reading, lost by 206 words 
and 3 ideas in amount reproduced. This person was 
a fast reader, reading at the rate of 5.5 words, and 
probably made too great an effort at speed in the 
second reading. 

These cases suggest that by taking into considera- 



EXPERIMENTS WITH SCHOOL SUBJECTS 129 

tion the rate of reading as well as the gain, a relation- 
ship with gain or loss in reproduction may be discov- 
ered. This proves to be the case. In order to display 
the relationship Section J of the table is constructed, 
in which the individuals are classified on the basis of 
rate of reading in the first test. 

Of the five most rapid readers the only one who in- 
creased materially in speed of reading, No. 5, lost 
heavily in the amount reproduced. The other four, 
who either lost in speed or gained but slightly, either 
gained in words or ideas or lost but very slightly. Of 
the five slow readers, on the other hand, four gained 
materially in speed as well as in the amount repro- 
duced in both words and ideas. The slowest readers 
were benefited in every way by their increase in 
speed. In the middle half of the whole group the 
result is not so uniform, but in general the slower 
readers of the third group gained in reproduction as 
well as in speed, while the faster readers of the second 
group gained in speed but lost in reproduction. 

The results of this comparison between the increase 
in speed and the increase in reproduction, taken to- 
gether with the relationship between the absolute rate 
of reading and the amount reproduced, warrant a 
statement which, while there are exceptions, holds in 
general so far as this class is concerned. This state- 
ment is as follows: The most rapid readers in the 
majority of cases sacrifice comprehension to speed, and 
the slowest readers sacrifice speed to comprehension. 



130 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

Furthermore the slow readers can increase the speed 
materially without loss in comprehension, or even with 
a gain, while an increase in speed among the rapid 
readers usually results in a loss in comprehension. 

Extension of the experiment. These conclusions 
demand extension and verification through the collec- 
tion of results from larger numbers. One very useful 
extension could be made by giving several tests with 
different kinds of subject-matter to the same group of 
individuals. A single test is never an adequate basis on 
which to measure the ability of an individual. It would 
be well to make a number of tests with a group of per- 
sons without saying anything about speed at first, in 
order to obtain a reliable measure of reading ability at 
the ordinary rate. The next step would be to give a 
whole series of texts to be read rapidly in order to find 
out the amount of improvement in speed of which the 
various individuals were capable, the amount of prac- 
tice to bring each one up to his approximate maximum, 
and the final effect of the increase in rate on the com- 
prehension of the various individuals. 

A less extensive experiment than the foregoing 
might well be made by repeating the experiment with 
various kinds of subject-matter, as essays, fiction, and 
poetry. Another variation which usually gives very 
good results consists in having a limited number of 
individuals — even so few as one will do — carry on a 
practice experiment for the purpose of increasing the 
rate of reading. 



EXPERIMENTS WITH SCHOOL SUBJECTS 131 



QUESTIONS AND TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION 

In addition to the specific problems mentioned above, the follow- 
ing questions may be discussed : — 

1. What seems in your experience to be the effect of the following 
factors in determining the rate of reading: eye-movement hab- 
its; the amount of inner articulation used; the rapidity of appre- 
hension of meaning; attention to word characteristics (diction, 
shades of meaning, sound, characteristics as used in alliteration, 
onomatopoeia, etc.), melody, balance of sentence structure? 

2. Should you say that the best speed of reading of different sorts 
of subject-matter, e.g. scientific prose, essays, novels, poetry, is 
the same? What considerations determine the best speed for 
these different kinds of material? 

3. How may speed of reading be increased? 

4. Has rapid reading any conceivable advantage beside economy 
of time? 

5. Should speed of reading be uniform ? 

6. How may one strike the proper balance between speed and 
apprehension of meaning? 

7. Propose means of improving the apprehension of meaning. 

REFERENCES 

Freeman, F. N. Psychology of the Common Branches, chap. 4. 

Judd, C. H. Measuring the Work of the Public Schools. Cleveland 
Foundation. 

Starch, D. "The Measurement of Efficiency in Reading"; in 
Journal of Educational Psychology (1915), vol. 6, pp. 1-24. 

Thorndike, E. L. "The Measurement of Ability in Reading"; 
in Teachers College Record (1914), vol. 15, pp. 1-67. 

Waldo, K. D. "Tests in Reading in the Sycamore Schools"; in 
Elementary School Journal (1915), vol. 15, pp. 251-68. 



132 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 



Experiment No. 12 

APPREHENSION OF NUMBER 

Problem. The abstract idea of number is the out- 
growth of various forms of concrete experience, and in 
most if not all cases it never becomes entirely independ- 
ent of some sort of imagery which reflects concrete 
experience in visual or mimetic terms. The study of 
visual experiences which form the basis of number 
apprehension, and which exhibit it in simple and more 
elaborate forms, will therefore give some insight into 
the means by which the idea of number is developed. 

There are a variety of forms of concrete experience 
through which the idea of number may be developed. 
One is counting, which consists in giving attention to a 
series of objects in succession, at the beginning guid- 
ing the attention by pointing, handling, objects, etc. 
and designating each object in the series by a number 
name. Another is the division of an object — a length, 
surface, or solid — into equal parts, and designating 
the sum of the parts by a number name. The third 
form of experience, which will constitute the basis of 
this experiment, consists in the simultaneous apprehen- 
sion of a group of objects, and the designation of the 
group by a number name. What we may call the 
perception of number exists in each of these cases prior 
to the use of number names, and forms the basis of the 
idea which is represented by the verbal expression. 



EXPERIMENTS WITH SCHOOL SUBJECTS 133 

Our problem in this experiment is to study the effect 
of grouping upon number apprehension. 

Material and method. The most convenient method 
of studying the simultaneous apprehension of a group 
of objects is to present the group to view for a short 
space of time by the brief exposure or tachistocopic 
method. We shall use groups of dots placed upon white 
cards and presented by means of the fall exposure 
apparatus. In order to test the effect of grouping, one 
series of cards contains dots arranged in a straight hori- 
zontal row, with equal spaces between them; another 
series contains dots arranged in irregular grouping; and 
the other series contains dots in certain regular forms 
of grouping. The stimuli used are reproduced in the 
Appendix, which see. 

The cards of each series should be presented in irreg- 
ular order, so that the subject may not be able to anti- 
cipate what the number about to be presented may be. 
As each card is reached in the series it should be pre- 
sented once (after warning signal), and the subject 
should make a record of his judgment of the number of 
spots, of their arrangement, and any introspections he 
may make. Each judgment may afterward be identi- 
fied and its correctness determined by labeling it with 
the number of the series and its number in the sequence 
of presentations in the series. After all the series have 
been presented once, they may be presented a second 
time, and each subject's score may be based upon the 
second trial. Experimenter and subject may exchange 



134 



EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 



places each time after the completion of the presenta- 
tion of the whole series of cards. 

Treatment of results. The numerical results of this 
experiment may be simply expressed. Each individual 
should report his judgments in the two trials upon 
each number of each series. For this purpose the num- 
bers should be arranged in consecutive order. He 
should then determine and record the highest number 
of each series which was correctly judged in the second 
trial. Furthermore, he should classify the errors in 
each series and in the whole number of judgments into 
underestimations and overestimations, and calculate 
the proportion of each. 

The general report should contain a table and chart 
based upon the percentage of correct judgments (based 
upon the second judgment in each case) which were 
passed by the class as a whole upon each stimulus card. 
The chart and table should exhibit a comparison of the 
percentage correctness of the judgments of the same 
numbers in the different series. 



TABLE XIII. PERCENTAGE OF CORRECT JUDGMENTS 
FROM A GROUP OF TWENTY INDIVIDUALS UPON 
EACH NUMBER OF THE VARIOUS SERIES 



Number 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


Series 




























I.... 




80 


45 


40 


40 


35 


25 














II.... 


100 


85 


75 


70 


60 


45 


45 














III... 






85 


80 


80 


75 


60 


65 


55 


55 








IV.... 




90 


85 


85 


70 


45 


60b 


30 


25 


40 








v.... 








95 


75 


70 


100 


70 


60 


90 


55 


30 


45 



EXPERIMENTS WITH SCHOOL SUBJECTS 135 

Results of the Experiment. Table XIII and Chart 
V give the data for the comparison of the apprehension 
of the various sorts of arrangement of the dots. The 
facts may be most readily inspected in the chart. It is 



Percentage 
100 



80 



Number exposed 
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 











































































> 












! 








































v 








. 








, 




\ 










\ 






























s 




"k 


\ 








/ 














! ' 
































s> 










,■ 
















i 
























\ 








^ 
























1 


























\ 














„ 


y 








\ 






• 




\ 


























\ 












V 




* 








\ 










■ 






































\ 






























































I 












s y; 














































\ 




















IT 


-v 






































\\ 




/ 


\ 


















































V 




t 




i 
















t 










































-\ 


A 
















\ 






A 


T 




































'\ 
















\ 






' 






































\ 










/ 




















































\ 






f 










\ 












































\ % 






f 










' 








































K \ 






s 


s/ 

































































































































































































































































































































































































40 



20 



Chart V. GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION OF THE PERCENTAGE OF 
CORRECT JUDGMENTS GIVEN IN TABLE XIU 

I. Irregular arrangement II. Horizontal row 

III. Grouping by fours IV. Grouping by threes 

V. Grouping by fives 



apparent at a glance that there is a radical difference 
in the mode of apprehension of the dots in irregular 
grouping, and in grouping by fives, for instance, Se- 
ries I and Series V. By comparison of the individual 
series and by a study of the introspections the effect 
of the various forms of grouping may be made out. 



136 



EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 



The significance of the results should be studied with 
reference to the light they throw upon the span of 
attention and the mode of organization which is pro- 
duced by grouping. The apprehension of objects in 
groups is particularly significant as an indication of 
the nature of much of our recognition of number. 
Question 4 suggests one application of the facts. What 
are others? 

TABLE XIV. PERCENTAGE OF ERRORS CONSISTING 
IN OVERESTIMATIONS IN THE VARIOUS NUM- 
BERS OF THE DIFFERENT SERIES 

(The numbers in italics represent the total number of errors) 



Number 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


Series 




I... 




k 
100 


11 
64 


12 
42 


12 
25 


13 
46 


15 
13 














II... 





3 


5 


6 


8 


11 


11 



















100 


40 


50 


50 


9 


9 














III... 






3 


4 


h 


5 


8 


7 


9 


9 














100 


75 


75 


20 


50 


45 


9 


22 








IV... 




2 


3 


3 


6 


11 


8 


12 
















100 


100 


66 


83 


73 


38 


14 


14 


8 








V... 








1 


5 


6 





6 


8 


2 


9 


u 


11 










100 


100 


17 





33 


75 


50 


9 


14 


18 



Table XIV presents the facts regarding the relation 
of overestimation and underestimation in the appre- 
hension of the various sized numbers of the different 
series. The table shows that in all the series the errors 
in the smaller numbers consist chiefly in overestima- 
tions, while in the case of the larger numbers the errors 



EXPERIMENTS WITH SCHOOL SUBJECTS 137 

are underestimations. What is the cause of this 
marked difference? Is it an evidence that an error in 
the apprehension of a smaller number of objects is of a 
different sort from an error in the apprehension of a 
larger number, or is it due to the same cause which in 
some way produces a different result under the two 
conditions? Introspections should be made use of in 
discussing this question. All the hypotheses possible 
should be presented, and their probability discussed. 

TABLE XV. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN PER- 
CENTAGE OF CORRECT JUDGMENTS 



Individual 


Percentage of cor- 


Individual 


Percentage of cor- 




rect judgments 




rect judgments 


A 


10.0 


K 


67.5 


B 


45.0+ 


L 


70.0+ 


C 


45.0 


M 


70.0 


D 


47.5 


N 


72.5 


E 


55.0 


O 


72.5 


F 


57.5 


P 


75.0 


G 


62.5+ 


Q 


75.0 = 


H 


62.5 


R 


77.8+ 


I 


65.0 = 


S 


80.0 


J 


67.5 


T 


82.5 



Table XV shows individual scores in the percentage 
of correct judgments made. The significance of such 
marked individual differences as are represented in this 
and other tables in these is one of the important prob- 
lems of educational psychology. In such an experi- 
ment as this it is likely to occur to the student that 
purely sensory differences are likely to be responsible 



138 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

for the wide divergence in the results, but there seems 
no good ground for this conclusion. This hypothesis 
may be tested by comparing the records of those who 
wear glasses with those of those who do not. There is 
some indication of a difference in the mode of appre- 
hension in the difference in the percentages of over- 
and underestimations. In the majority of cases the 
total number of underestimations exceeds the over- 
estimations, but in the case of four individuals, indi- 
cated in the table by the plus sign, the reverse is the 
case; and in the case of two, indicated by the equality 
sign, the over- and underestimations are equal in 
number. These divergent cases, however, are regularly 
distributed among those of high and low percentages of 
correct judgments. 

It is very desirable to be able to determine the sig- 
nificance of such facts of individual difference as this, 
both for schoolroom practice and for the diagnosis of 
abilities in vocational guidance. For a discussion of 
some of the attempts which have been made in the 
latter sphere see Miinsterberg. 1 Individual differences 
in the fundamental forms of number ability have been 
studied particularly by S. A. Courtis. See his article in 
the report of the New York School Inquiry. 2 

Extension of the experiment. A valuable extension 

1 Miinsterberg, H., Psychology and Industrial Efficiency. Boston: 
Houghton Mifflin Co. 1913. 

2 Courtis, S. A., "Report on the Courtis Tests in Arithmetic"; 
in Report of Committee on School Inquiry, City of New York (1911- 
13), vol. 1, pp. 389-546. 



EXPERIMENTS WITH SCHOOL SUBJECTS 139 

of this experiment consists in making the experiment 
with children of various ages, and noting the type of 
recognition in which the older children and adults 
show most development. An attempt may also be 
made to determine whether individual differences 
among children reflect their ability in number work, 
or in any other phase of their school work. 

QUESTIONS AND TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION 

The student may judge which questions can be answered only in 
the general report. 

1. What is the average scope of attention as measured by the 
number of different unorganized units which can be appre- 
hended simultaneously? Within what limits does it vary? 

2. How does grouping (subjective or objective) enable one to 
judge correctly a number of objects beyond the scope of 
attention? 

3. Which do you think is more affected by education, the scope of 
attention or the ability to apprehend groups? (If opportunity 
offers, this question could well be tested.) 

4. Does the experience obtained in this experiment suggest any 
means by which we may form the idea of numbers larger than 
can readily be grasped concretely? Does the decimal system 
suggest any analogy? 

5. What possibilities exist in the procedure used in this experi- 
ment for the teaching of number? 

6. Point out other kinds of experience in which the organization 
of the material increases the amount which can be appre- 
hended as a unit. 

REFERENCES 

Freeman, F. N. "Grouped Objects as a Concrete Basis for the 
Number Idea"; in Elementary School Teacher (1912), vol. 12, pp. 
306-14. 

Judd, C. H. Genetic Psychology for Teachers, chap. ix. 

McClellan, J. A., and Dewey, J. Psychology of Number. 



CHAPTER IV 

TESTS 

There are two senses which are important for the 
child's education and mental development, and in 
respect to which there are a considerable number of 
children in whom there is marked deviation from the 
normal; namely, vision and hearing. The purpose of 
these tests is the detection of serious deviations from 
the normal, and the rough determination of the charac- 
ter of the defect. The aim is not to determine with 
precision the amount of the defect nor to equip the 
student to prescribe remedies other than those which 
are included in the duty of the school administrator. 



TESTS 141 

Experiment No. 13 

TESTS OF VISUAL DEFECTS 

Problem. The defects which are to be tested in this 
experiment are myopia (near-sightedness), hyperopia 
(far-sightedness), astigmatism (lack of clear focusing 
of the image on the retina), and heterophoria (lack of 
muscular balance, which produces a tendency of the 
eyes to cross, squint, etc). 

a. The first test is for the purpose of detecting the 
presence of myopia or hyperopia. 

Myopia. This is usually caused by too great length 
of eyeball from front to back, as a result of which the 
image of an object at a distance is brought to a focus 
in front of the retina. Hyperopia is caused by the op- 
posite fault, as a result of which the image would come 
to a focus back of the retina if the crystalline lens of 
the eye were at rest. Myopia cannot be corrected by 
the action of the crystalline lens, because this would 
necessitate that the lens become flatter than it is when 
at rest. The lens flattens, however, only through the 
contraction of a muscle which is constant in its ten- 
sion, and which cannot be relaxed or tightened to suit 
the varying needs of accommodation; and hence there 
is no means of further decreasing its curvature. For 
this reason the defect is easily discovered by the inabil- 
ity of the subject to clearly distinguish objects as far 
away as can be seen by the normal eye, and by his 



142 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

ability to see objects at a greater distance by the use of 
a lens which brings the light to a focus farther back; 
that is, a concave lens. 

Hyperopia. This, on the other hand, is detected 
(provided the ciliary muscle which controls the crys- 
talline lens has not been paralyzed by a drug) in a 
somewhat more roundabout way. After the analogy 
of myopia, we might assume that the far-sighted indi- 
vidual could not distinguish objects close by, but this 
assumption would be incorrect, for the thickening of 
the lens which is necessary to bring it to a focus upon 
objects near at hand is produced by the contraction of 
the muscle of accommodation — the ciliary muscle — 
and in the hyperopic eye it is only necessary that this 
contraction be more vigorous than in the normal eye. 
A further consequence of the defect is that even when 
the lens is accommodated for distant objects the ciliary 
muscle is not at rest, as in the normal eye, but must be 
more or less strongly contracted. It is this fact which 
is employed to detect hyperopia. If the normal eye is 
accommodated for a distant object and a convex lens 
is placed before the eye, producing in effect an accom- 
modation for a point nearer by, the lens cannot adjust 
itself by further flattening, since it is already at rest; 
and the object as a consequence appears blurred. In 
the hyperopic eye, on the other hand, the lens is still 
somewhat thickened by the ciliary muscle, and this by 
further relaxing can compensate for the effect of the 
artificial lens, with the result that the object remains 



TESTS 143 

clear. In a word, then, if the addition of a convex lens 
does not blur the vision of an object set at the maxi- 
mum distance, the eye is hyperopic. 

Material and method. The test consists merely in 
applying these general principles. In doing so, it is, of 
course, necessary to examine one eye at a time, and to 
keep the other eye covered without pressing upon it. 
Placing a blank disk in the trial frame, is a convenient 
method of doing this. The McCallie vision test cards * 
are recommended, because their order can be changed 
at will and only one letter is shown at a time, thus 
making an accurate record possible of what is and what 
is not correctly perceived. 

Detailed directions. Require the subject to sit 
twenty feet from the spot where the cards lie face down 
upon a table. Cover one eye. Present the first card 
with the small letter at the top and ask the subject to 
name it. Record his answer, and continue with the 
other cards until ten have been presented, or until it 
becomes evident that the subject cannot read four out 
of five of the letters at that distance. If he has read 
correctly eight out of ten cards, there is no considerable 
myopia, and the test should be made for hyperopia by 
placing the convex lens (+.75) in the trial frame. If 
the subject can still read the smallest letters, there is 
evidence of hyperopia. If they appear blurred, the 

1 These cards may be purchased from Edwin Fitzgeorge, agent, 
Box 67, Trenton, N. J. A set for literates contains letters. Another 
set may be used with illiterates. 



144 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

eye is approximately emmetropic — that is, neither 
hyperopic nor myopic. 

If the subject cannot read eight out of ten of the 
smallest letters, the next larger letters should be pre- 
scribed; and if he fails to read these, the next larger; 
and so on. If he fails to read the largest letters, the 
distance should be reduced by two feet at a time until 
he can do so. The trial should be made now with the 
concave lens (—.75) to determine whether vision is 
improved thereby. If so, the eye is myopic. 

The results may be conveniently recorded by means 
of the following formula: The acuity of vision is ex- 
pressed by the ratio of the greatest distance from which 
a particular size of letter can be read to the greatest 
distance at which it can be read by a normal eye. Thus, 
if the letters marked forty are the smallest which the 
subject can read at a distance of twenty feet, his acuity 
is recorded as 20/40. It should further be recorded 
whether the eye is emmetropic, hyperopic, or myopic. 

The same procedure should be gone through with 
the other eye. 

b. The second test is for the purpose of detecting 
the presence of astigmatism. 

Astigmatism. This defect is caused by an unequal 
curvature of one of the refracting media of the eye in 
its various meridians. The seat of the trouble is usually 
the cornea. As a result the rays of light from any given 
point will not reach a focus at a point, but those which 
meet the cornea in one meridian will be focused at one 



TESTS 145 

point and those which meet it in another meridian will 
be focused at another point. The retina may be situ- 
ated at the focus of one or the other of these meridians, 
or at a point different from either, and there are in con- 
sequence a variety of possibilities with regard to the 
retinal image. The common result, however, is that 
there is an elongation of the image in some particular 
direction due to the fact that the focal distance of the 
cornea in this direction is greater or less than that of 
the rest of the cornea. Any line, then, which is in any 
other than this direction of unequal curvature will 
appear blurred because of the elongation of the image 
in a lateral direction. In the case of a line which is 
parallel to the direction of unequal curvature, on the 
other hand, the elongations all fall within the line itself 
and hence do not produce blurring. The common 
method of detecting astigmatism, therefore, is to pre- 
sent a card which contains lines in various directions 
radiating from a center. If the lines in one direction 
appear distinct, while the rest are blurred, there is evi- 
dence of astigmatism. If astigmatism is detected by 
this means, the defect is sufficient to require correction. 
Oculists usually make a more exact diagnosis by means 
of trial cylindrical lenses and the opthalmoscope. 

The test should be made as follows : Place the chart 
at a distance of twenty feet from the subject and test 
one eye at a time. If myopia or hyperopia exist, insert 
in the trial frame the lens which partially corrects the 
defect. Ask the subject whether the line in one direc- 



146 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

tion appears blacker and more distinct than the others. 
If the answer is affirmative, the correctness of the judg- 
ment may be confirmed by turning the head so that the 
one eye is raised and the other lowered. The position 
of the distinct lines should shift correspondingly. If an 
affirmative answer is thus confirmed, the defect may 
be recorded as astigmatism in the axis of the lines 
which appear distinct. 

c. The third test. This is for the purpose of detect- 
ing heterophoria, or the lack of muscular balance. 

Heterophoria. This is caused by an unequal tension 
in the pairs of muscles which turn the eye out and in or 
up and down, or a combination of these two conditions. 
This inequality of tension may not produce an actual 
displacement of the line of vision of the eye, since the 
motive of clear vision may lead to an extra innervation 
of the muscle opposing the muscle which possesses un- 
due tension. This, however, produces a condition of 
strain which may have serious effects upon the nervous 
system. The test for heterophoria is based upon the 
fact that if the motive for directing the eyes toward the 
same point is not present, the defect becomes manifest. 
This may be done by placing a lens or other medium 
before one eye so that the image in that eye is distorted 
and is not recognized as being produced by the object 
which is perceived through the other eye. The Stevens 
stenopaic lens 1 is recommended for this purpose, since 

1 The stenopaic lens should be tested to see whether it is accurate. 
If it is not, as is likely to happen, the Maddox rods may be used and 



TESTS 147 

it reveals the direction and amount of displacement by 
a single determination. This is a convex lens of short 
focus covered except for a small opening in the center. 
When this lens is placed with the opening close to and 
in front of the pupil, a source of light, as a candle, is 
seen as a circular spot of diffused light. If the muscular 
balance of the eyes is normal, the image of the candle 
as seen through the other eye should appear in the 
center of this spot. If it does not, there is heterophoria. 

Proceed as follows. Place the stenopaic lens before 
one eye. Place a lighted candle on a level with the eyes 
and twenty feet away. Direct the subject to close his 
eyes and immediately upon opening them and looking 
at the candle to say whether it appears in the middle 
of the circle of light; or if not, what its position is. 
Repeat the test with the other eye. 

The results of the test should be recorded for each 
eye separately. The record should state whether 
there is heterophoria; and if there is, in what direction 
the lack of muscular balance exists. 

Results of the experiment. The record of the test of 
a group of twenty-two individuals for visual acuity is 
shown in Table XVI. In most cases the record is con- 
sistent. For convenience in inspecting the table the 
cases in which a ratio less than 20/20 indicates a de- 
fect in acuity are underlined. In two cases there is a 
defect indicated in both eyes, and in five cases in one 

the test made with the instrument in both the vertical and the hori- 
zontal positions. 



148 



EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 



TABLE XVI. RECORD OF THE TESTS FOR VISUAL 
ACUITY OF TWENTY-TWO INDIVIDUALS 



Letters recognized with 
lenses 



Subject 



A. 
B. 
C. 
D. 

E. 
F. 
G. 
H. 
I.. 
J.. 
K. 
L. 
M. 
N. 
O. 
P. 
Q- 
R. 
S. 
T. 
U. 
V. 



Ratio 


Letters 
recog- 
nized 


Large 
letters re- 
cognized 








St 






20/20 


20/20 


10 


10 






20/20 


20/20 


9 


10 






20/30 


20/20 










20/20 


20/30 


8 


6 




8* 


20/30 


20/20 


6 


10 


9* 




20/20 


20/20 


10 


10 






20/20 


20/20 


10 


10 






20/30 


20/30 


3 


3 


8* 


8* 


20/20 


20/20 


8 


8 






20/20 


20/20 


8 


9 






20/20 


20/20 


9 


9 






20/20 


20/20 


10 


10 






20/30 


20/30 


5 


5 


8* 


S* 


20/20 


20/20 


10 


10 






20/20 


20/20 


10 


10 






20/30 


20/20 


4 


10 


S* 




20/20 


20/20 


10 


8 






20/20 


20/20 


10 


8 






20/20 


20/20 


10 


10 






20/20 


20/50 


8 


10 




8t 


20/20 


20/20 


9 


8 






20/20 


20/20 


10 


10 







Convex 



8BJ 
4B 

8B.L. 
5B 
0B 
10 



not so good 



3B 

10 B.R. 
7B 

8B 



Concave 



neither lens helps. 






0B 




9 


9B 







6B 


10 


8 


9 
B 




8 


6B 




7 


no data 




10 


10 




5 


5 





* Second size. 



t Fourth size. 



% Blurred. 



TESTS 149 

eye only. Usually when eight or more of the smallest 
letters can be recognized with the naked eye the recog- 
nition is impaired by the use of either lens. In the case 
of Subjects D (R.E.), G, and U, however, the use of the 
convex lens either produces improvement or fails to 
impair vision. What does this indicate? In the case of 
four individuals vision was improved in one or both 
eyes by the concave lens. What does this indicate? 

One case, that of M, appears, so far as this test can 
be relied upon, to be improved by neither lens. This 
may point to astigmatism, or some other form of de- 
fect, such as cataract or retinal defect. From reference 
to the next table no astigmatism is apparent, though 
expert examination would be necessary to render 
judgment on this point certain. 

The record of the test in astigmatism, Table XVII, 
indicates a rather large proportion, 50 per cent of de- 
fective cases in this rather rough method of determina- 
tion. The results of this method must be taken with 
considerable allowance for error in observation. 

The results of heterophoria are presented not merely 
to illustrate the proportion of cases in which hetero- 
phoria is to be expected, but also to indicate that care 
is needed in interpreting the objective results. Take 
Subject D, for instance. He finds heterophoria in one 
eye and not in the other. Is this possible by the method 
used? The test depends on the comparative positions of 
the two eyes. Or take Subjects E, G, I, K, M, O, U, and 
V. They find, according to their report, esophoria in 



150 



EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 



TABLE XVII. RECORD OF THE TESTS FOR ASTIG- 
MATISM AND HETEROPHORIA OF TWENTY-TWO 
INDIVIDUALS 





+ indicates 


presence, and 


— absence of defect 






Astigmatism 


Heteropkoria in horizontal plane 


Subject 


R.E. 


L.E, 


R.E. 


L.E. 








H 1 


Es 2 


Ex z 


H l 


Es 2 


Ex s 


A 
B 
C 
D 
E 

F 

G 

H 

I 

J 

K 

L 

M 

N 



P 

Q 

R 
S 
T 
U 
V 


+ 
+ 
+ 

+ 
+ 

+ 
+ 

no 

+ 

+ 

+ 
+ 


+ 
+ 
+ 

+ 
+ 

+ 

data 

+ 

+ 
+ 


+ 
+ 
+ 
+ 
+ 

+ 
+ 
+ 

+ 
+ 
+ 

+ 

+ 
+ 
+ 


+ 
+ 

+ 
+ 
+ 

+ 
+ 


+ 

+ 
+ 

+ 

+ 
+ 


+ 

+ 
+ 
+ 

+ 
+ 
+ 

+ 
+ 
+ 

+ 

+ 
+ 
+ 


+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 
+ 


+ 
+ 

+ 
+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 
+ 



1 Heterophoria. 2 Esophoria, or displacement inward. 

3 Exophoria, or displacement outward. 

one eye and exophoria in the other. Is it possible to 
get this result by this method? 

In order to answer these questions, and the further 



TESTS 151 

question, — what does the displacement of the line to 
the right or left mean with the lens before each eye 
with reference to the relative position of the eyes? — 
the student should draw a diagram of the eyes, the 
source of light and the various possible positions of the 
image of the light and of the line. 

Extensions of the experiment. Possible extensions 
of this experiment will be described at the end of Ex- 
periment XIV. 

REFERENCES 

For an account of the frequency of these defects, see G. M. Whip- 
ple, Manual of Mental and Physical Tests, chap. vi. For a full de- 
scription of the various defects and their physiological basis, see H. 
Eulenberg and T. Bach, Schulgesundeheitslehre (1900), vol. 1, pp. 
748/. 

For questions and discussions, see the end of the next experiment. 



152 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

Experiment No. 14 

TESTS OF AUDITORY ACUITY 

The most serious defect of hearing is the inability 
to hear sounds of an intensity (loudness) sufficient to 
be heard by the individual with normal hearing. The 
manner of testing auditory acuity is simple in principle, 
but the conduct of the test is attended with difficulties. 
It is not a simple matter to produce a series of sounds 
in regularly ascending or descending grades of intensity 
and of standard intensity. One means at hand is to 
vary the distance of the source of sound from the ear; 
but this method is attended with the complicating 
factor of reflecting walls, and ordinarily by the disturb- 
ing presence of other sounds in the neighborhood. This 
is the method of the watch test or the whisper test. To 
overcome these difficulties, the sound may be applied 
to the ear and its intensity varied in regular steps. 
This is the method of the audiometer. 

A convenient general method of procedure, whatever 
the form of stimulus which is used, is a combination of 
the method of right and wrong cases with the method 
of varying the stimulus. This method consists in de- 
termining the intensity of the stimulus at which the 
subject will give a correct answer in eight out of ten 
judgments. The detailed procedure with the watch 
test, the whisper test, and the audiometer is as 
follows: — 



TESTS 153 

Directions 

a. Watch test. Blindfold the subject, close one ear 
with the finger or a plug. Hold the watch opposite the 
open ear well within hearing distance and slowly move 
it away, requiring the subject to say at intervals 
whether or not he hears it. When the point has been 
reached at which the subject reports that he no longer 
hears the watch, mark the spot on the floor with chalk. 
Begin beyond the point at which the watch can be 
heard and move it slowly toward the subject until he 
clearly hears it and mark as before. Then tell the sub- 
ject that when the watch is presented it will always 
be at the same place but that, in approximately half 
the cases in which he is asked to judge, there will be 
no stimulus whatever. Then hold the watch midway 
between the two marks and proceed by distributing 
the cases in which the watch is and is not presented 
irregularly, but in about equal number. If the answers 
are correct in eight out of ten cases, measure the dis- 
tance of the place of stimulation from the ear and re- 
cord it as the threshold. If the answers are correct in 
smaller ratio than eight to ten, move the watch nearer 
and elicit another set of judgments, and so on until a 
place is found where the ratio is as required. Proceed 
in the same way to test the other ear. 

b. Whisper test. The disadvantage of the watch 
test (besides variation in the loudness of tick of differ- 
ent watches, and the consequent absence of an abso- 



154 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

lute standard) is that the sound is not one which one 
is accustomed to listen for, and is one which it is very- 
easy to imagine one hears when one does not. Further- 
more, there is no means of knowing certainly whether 
the subject actually does hear the sound; and finally, 
the ability to hear the tick of a watch does not always 
correspond entirely with the ability to hear other 
sounds, and is not one which is of great practical value. 
To meet these difficulties the whisper test has been 
devised. 

The procedure is similar in principle to that used in 
the watch test, the difference being that the criterion 
as to whether the subject has heard is in this case the 
ability to repeat or write numbers which are spoken to 
him in a whisper. The subject is placed with one ear 
toward the experimenter, the other ear being plugged, 
and a position is found as before at which the subject 
can correctly reproduce numbers which are whispered 
to him, in eight out of ten cases. In order to insure 
that the numbers be pronounced with equal loudness 
each time, the breath should be expelled as fully as 
occurs in a natural expiration, and not more than eight 
syllables should be pronounced at one time. With 
these precautions, the whisper test may be made with 
a fair degree of accuracy, and it may be conveniently 
used in the schoolroom. 

c. Acoumeter test. The disadvantage of both the 
watch and the whisper tests is that they are subject to 
disturbance by other sounds. Hence, a comparison 



TESTS 155 

between the results with different persons is rendered 
somewhat uncertain and difficult. These difficulties 
are overcome by forms of audiometer which produce 
sounds of regularly varying loudness close to the ear. 
The instrument which is chosen for this test is the 
Lehmann acoumeter. This instrument consists essen- 
tially of a pair of forceps, the height of which can be 
varied by small and measurable amounts, so as to 
enable a metal ball to be dropped upon a surface of 
glass or cardboard from various heights. 

Directions. Vary the height of the forceps in the 
acoumeter and determine the threshold in the same 
manner as in the watch test. Record this as the 
measure of auditory acuity. Test similarly the other 
ear. 

Results of the experiment. The detailed results of 
the three auditory tests are shown in numerical form in 
Table XVIII, and in graphic form in Chart VI. The 
experience of previous classes indicates that when this 
experiment is made in the usual fashion, that is, when 
the tests are all made by different individuals, the re- 
sults are so varied that little or no reliance can be 
placed on them. This was shown by the unsatisfactori- 
ness of the checks which are mentioned below. It is 
evident from this experience that this test, while appar- 
ently a simple one to make, is one of the most difficult 
to give accurately. In order to insure greater uniform- 
ity in the results all the subjects were tested by the 
watch and the whisper method by one person, and the 



156 



EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 



TABLE XVIII. SCORES MADE BY A GROUP OF 
TWENTY IN THE AUDITORY TEST 





Acoumeter test 


Watch test 


Whisper test 


Individual 


R. ear 

{milli- 
meters) 


L. ear 

{milli- 
meters) 












R. ear 

{meters) 


L. ear 

{meters) 


R. ear 

{meters) 


L. ear 

{meters) 


A 


5. 


5. 


0. 


0. 


.42 


.88 


B 


5. 


4. 


3.24. 


1.42 


14.42 


14.42 


C 


5- 


3. 


.90 


.70 


4. 


3.6 


D 


3.5 


3.5 


1.03 


1.14 


12.6 


8. 


E 


3.5 


2.5 


0.27 


.30 


20.22 


20.22 


F 


3. 


3. 


9.30 


10.90 


12.90 


14.42 


G 


3. 


3. 


10.42 


10.42 


14.42 


14.42 


H 


2.5 


2.5 


3. 


4. 


9. 


10. 


I 


2.5 

2.5 

2. 


2.5 
2.25 

2.75 


1.95 
4.30 
3.18 


1.72 
3.46 
3. 


9.23 
11.91 

4.26 


9.23 


J 


11.91 


K 


3.80 


L 


2. 


2.5 


4.23 


4.23 


9.23 


9.23 


M 


2. 


2. 


5. 


4.22 


14.12 


14.12 


N 


2. 


1.5 


.93 


1.33 


9.23 


10.73 





1.75 


2.5 


1.28 


.93 


11.5 


8.81 


P 


1.75 


2. 


4. 


2. 


7.21 


4.9 


Q 


1.75 


1.75 


4. 


4.22 


14.42 


14.42 


R 


1.5 


3.5 


3.11 


.66 


2.22 


3.6 


S 


1.5 
1.5 


2. 
1.75 


.68 
2.79 


.5 
3.8 


11.37 
15. 


.68 


T 


14.42 



acoumeter test was given to all by another experi- 
menter. Even with this precaution the results from 
five of the subjects, B, E, F, G, and R, were unreliable 
on account of some limitation or defect in the proce- 
dure. The data from Subject S are not to be used in 
judging the reliability of the results because of the loss 
of one ear-drum. 

The greatest difficulty encountered in giving this 



TESTS 



157 



Distance 
M 



20 
































































































































































































































































































































15 






















































































_ 






































































- 






















































































































































































































































.5 10 

































































































































































lS 


















































































^ 




































































































































































6 












































































































































































































— 1 






















































































































































































































































































-J 














































































































































































































































































































































10 


















, 










































































































































A 


















































































+-> 


















































































^ B 


































































































































































5 





































































, 






















































— 
















































































































- 





















































































































































































































































M.M. 








































































































































































































































































































































1 

M 


































































































































































* 2 


































































































































































5 3 


































































































































































3 4 


































































































































































5 



































































































































































It Li tt Li It Li.lt Li .It U .fr-Li It Li it Li It Li It I, It Li It Li It Li It Li It Li LtL, 1$ L* It Li It 1j K A.. 

Individ- a B CDEP'GH I J KLMNOPQR ST 
ual * * * * * * 

Chart VI. GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION OF THE DATA IN 

TABLE XVIII 

R = right ear L = left ear * indicates unreliable cases 

test is the interference of extraneous noises. This is 
true even in a relatively quiet building. In a building 
near which there are many street noises the difficulty 
would be greatly increased. Where the conditions are 



158 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

unfavorable for this reason one must do his best to call 
for judgments at moments that are relatively quiet. 
Another difficulty is the inability of the unpracticed 
subject to pay strict attention, and to give a faithful 
account of what he hears. This must be overcome by 
taking sufficient time for the test, and by introducing a 
considerable number of negative cases by calling for 
judgments when no stimulus was given. If the subject 
does not pretty regularly report that he hears nothing 
when no stimulus is given he must be trained until 
he can. 

It is true that none of the persons tested in this 
group, with but one or two possible exceptions, are 
very hard of hearing, and therefore there may not be 
any of them who need to be discovered by an auditory 
test. And yet if we relied on a single test there would 
be at least seven or eight who might be rated defective 
by one test or another. It appears then that much care 
is required at least to avoid rating persons defective 
who are not, and possibly also to avoid missing some 
who are defective. 

The reliability of the results may be checked in two 
ways. In the first place we may compare the relative 
rating given to the two ears of the same person in the 
different tests. If one ear is rated poorer than the other 
in one test it should also be rated as poor by the other 
tests. The chart makes it easy to apply this check. 
Disregarding the unreliable cases, which are starred, 
we may examine the others to determine whether the 



TESTS 159 

results from the two ears give them the same relative 
rating in the three tests or not. There are ten cases 
(A, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, Q, T) in which the rating of 
the two ears is not markedly different, and in which 
the three tests agree in giving them about the same 
rating. There are three cases in which one ear is given a 
better rating than the other in all three tests (N, O, P) . 
There are then thirteen cases in which there is sub- 
stantial agreement. On the other hand, there are two 
cases (C and D), in which one ear is given a widely- 
different rating than the other in one test but not in 
the others. On the whole, this check is favorable to 
the tests. 

The other check does not give quite so favorable 
results. We may compare the relative standing of the 
different persons in the three tests. Again disregarding 
the admittedly unreliable cases, we may examine each 
case to see whether there is any considerable discrep- 
ancy in the first rating. In the case of Subjects A, H, I, 
M, Q, and T, there is reasonably close correspondence 
in the three tests. C and D may be added to this list, if 
we take the average of the rating of the two ears in the 
cases in which they are not alike. In the case of L the 
whisper test is rather low, but not extremely so. In the 
case of four subjects (K, N, O, and P) there is serious 
discrepancy in one test — in the case of K and P in the 
whisper test, and in the case of N and O in the watch 
test. There are thus eight cases of fair agreement, and 
four cases of bad disagreement in respect to one test. 



160 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

The tests, while not highly reliable therefore, give re- 
sults which, taken singly, are of some value. To get 
results of greater reliability it is necessary to refine the 
technique far beyond that which an untrained teacher 
is likely to attain in giving the tests to children, or to 
combine the results from two or three tests. 

Extension of the experiment. The types of extension 
of Tests 13 and 14 that would be the most useful con- 
cern the technique, or the effect of sensory defects upon 
the child's work in the school. The technique may be 
further investigated by having the same test given to 
the same group of persons by two or more experimenters. 
Cases of disagreement might then be further investi- 
gated until they were explained or the different testers 
came to an agreement. The effect of sensory defects on 
school work could be studied by testing a group of 
school children for sight and hearing, noting whether 
there were any bad uncorrected cases, and if any were 
discovered investigating their work to see whether the 
effects of the defect could be traced. If the defects 
could be corrected and the results noted, so much the 
better. 



TESTS 161 



QUESTIONS ON EXPERIMENTS NOS. 13 AND 14 

1. Is the dependence of intelligence upon sensory normality nec- 
essary or adventitious? Support your answer. Does sensory 
defect have the same effect on intelligence as defect of brain 
structure? 

2. Trace the possible injurious physiological effects of sensory 
defect. 

3. Show in some detail the effects of sensory defect upon the 
child's acquirement of experience. 

4. Describe the measures which may be taken to correct or 
ameliorate sensory defects or to avoid some of their bad con- 
sequences. 

5. Is there any reason to think that especial care is required to 
detect sensory defect? 

6. Does the importance of sensory defect argue for the value of 
sense training? 

7. Name other sensory defects of some consequence besides 
those tested in these experiments. 

8. Compare sensory defects with defects in any of the perceptual 
processes investigated in this course. 

REFERENCES 

Whipple, G. M. Manual of Mental and Physical Tests, chap. vi. 
Eulenberg, EL, and Bach, T. Schulgesundheitslehre (1900), vol. 1, 

pp.748/. 



162 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

Experiment No. 15 

TESTS OF MATURITY OF A MENTAL FUNCTION 
a. Immediate memory for numbers 

Problem. The second type of test with which we 
shall deal aims to determine the position which an indi- 
vidual occupies upon a scale of development. The 
assumption underlying such a test is that there are 
characteristic stages of development through which 
the child passes until he reaches maturity, and that 
tests may be devised which correspond in difficulty or 
in kind to the ability or the type of mental life of the 
child at these various stages. 

The two tests which are used in this experiment will 
serve as examples of tests of progressive difficulty 
which may be used to measure the degree of mental 
maturity of an individual. The next step in the devel- 
opment of maturity tests on a systematic basis is to 
devise and apply many such single tests to children, in 
order that norms may be established. By this means a 
group of standardized tests may be placed at the serv- 
ice of the teacher or custodian of children, by which he 
may analyze the child's mental development qualita- 
tively and quantitatively. 

The first test deals with the relatively simple mental 
process of immediate rote memory, or memory span. 
Immediate memory develops rapidly with increasing 
age up to about fifteen years of age, and may be devel- 



TESTS 163 

oped further by practice. This, then, is a suitable sub- 
ject of a maturity test. 

Material and method. Various kinds of subject- 
matter have been used in tests of immediate memory. 
The most convenient material in a number of ways 
consists of one-place numbers, and they have accord- 
ingly been chosen. Numbers have the advantages of 
being familiar, and at the same time of being relatively 
free from associations. This insures the use of rote 
instead of logical memory. 

Two series of numbers are given below, so that each 
subject may be given a list with which he is unfamiliar. 
In making up the lists, any sequence which would be 
likely to aid the memory of the subject should be 
avoided. Such would be, for example, regularly as- 
cending or descending sequences, the immediate repe- 
tition of the same number, the repetition of the same 
sequences in successive lists, etc. 

List a: (2) 3, 8 (6) 4, 2, 7, 5, 1, 8 

(3) 9, 4, 7 (7) 3, 9, 2, 6, 7, 5, 8 

(4) 2, 5, 1, 9 (8) 9, 5, 4, 8, 1, 7, 3, 6 

(5) 6, 8, 3, 5, 7 (9) 2, 7, 1, 6, 9, 4, 3, 8, 5 

List b: (2) 6, 1 (6) 7, 3, 6, 8, 4, 9 

(3) 4, 7, 2 (7) 2, 5, 4, 3, 8, 1, 7 

(4) 3, 8, 5, 7 (8) 5, 1, 7, 3, 4, 6, 2, 9 

(5) 4, 2, 9, 1, 5 (9) 7, 1, 3, 6, 2, 9, 8, 5, 4 

The series are to be read aloud by the experimenter 
in order, giving the subject opportunity to reproduce 
each series orally. The numbers should be read in an 
even voice, without rhythmic grouping at about one 
second intervals. 



164 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

b. Reconstruction of sentences 

Problem. A second test of the same general nature 
as the preceding, but which involves a more complex 
sort of mental process, is the subject of this experi- 
ment. This test consists in rearranging the words of 
sentences which have been put into chance order. 
Variation in difficulty has been secured by choosing 
sentences of the same general character, but of in- 
creasing length. The sentences used in this experiment 
have been roughly standardized in difficulty by being 
given to a class of adults. 

Material and method. The subject should not try 
to reconstruct the sentences until the experiment is 
undertaken. The measure of efficiency is the time 
required to reconstruct the sentences. Let the experi- 
menter, with stop-watch in hand, present one sentence 
at a time to the subject visually, beginning with the 
shortest and advancing each time to the next longer. 
The time to be measured is from the presentation of 
the sentence until it has been correctly written. The 
answer is to be graded as correct if all the words are 
included in a grammatical and logical sentence. Minor 
variations from the key are to be allowed. Two series 
of sentences are furnished, so that each subject may 
have a different one. The two series are approximately 
equal in difficulty. They are printed in the Appendix, 
which see. 

Treatment of results. The individual reports should 



TESTS 165 

contain tables showing the series of numbers correctly 
reproduced and the time required to rearrange each 
sentence. Any variations from a correspondence be- 
tween the relative length of a sentence and the time 
required to construct it should be explained on the 
basis of introspection. 

The general report should generalize the data from 
the individual subjects, and discuss individual differ- 
ences. 

Results of the experiment. These tests when given 
to adults are, of course, not tests of maturity. The 
purpose of including them in a course of this sort, be- 
sides familiarizing the student with certain typical 
tests and methods, is to indicate some of the facts 
which have to be considered in interpreting the results 
of such tests. The two factors which are to be studied 
in the results to be presented are individual difference, 
and the chance misadaptation or favorable adaptation 
of a subject to an individual test. 

The immediate memory span for numbers in a group 
of fifteen individuals varied from 6 to 9. The scores 
were distributed as follows: — 

Frequency Number 

2 6 

3 7 

7 8 

3 9 

The mode of this group is 8. Because of the varia- 
tion which is here evident among mature individuals, 



166 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

it is manifestly a mistake to lay great stress upon the 
differences of one or two from a norm in a single test 
such as this. The combined result of a group of tests is 
of more significance than a single test. 

Individual differences are also illustrated in the re- 
sults of the tests in the reconstruction of sentences. 
These results also show that in this test the time re- 
quired to reconstruct the sentences depends a good 
deal on the chance that one begins with the right or the 
wrong words, or starts the construction of the sentence 
in one way or another. Table XIX shows the scores of 
two groups, in Series I and II respectively. 

It will be seen upon inspection of the table that there 
is fairly regular increase in the time required to recon- 
struct the sentences as they grow progressively longer, 
but that there are in most cases exceptions to this rule 
of regular increase, and in some cases the exception is 
notable. An illustration of a notable exception is to 
be found in the score of Subject F. Such cases as this 
show that it would be erroneous to assume — in adults 
at least — that a sudden and large increase in the time 
required indicates a limit of ability, or the demarcation 
between two stages or methods of procedure, for in the 
last two sentences this subject's score drops consider- 
ably below the average. It may be that in the case 
of children or of adults, with still longer and more com- 
plex sentences, a fairly definite point would be reached 
which would mark the limit of ability to reconstruct 
without the expenditure of largely increased time; but, 



TESTS 



167 



TABLE XIX. SCORES OF FIFTEEN INDIVIDUALS IN 
THE RECONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES 

Series I 



Sentence No. 
Number of words 


1 

6 


2 
7 


3 
8 


k 

9 


5 
10 


6 
12 


7 
13 


8 
16 


Subject — 

A 


7 
20 
30 

9 
11 
13 
16 
20 


10 
32 
32 

14 
18 
20 
25 

25 


15 
19 
40 
17 
23 
30 
23 
22 


17 
57 
32 

27 
34 
27 
45 
50 

33 


21 

32 
75 
19 
45 
160 
51 
38 


28 
56 
60 
68 
117 
235 
79 
41 


32 

75 
40 
47 
194 
47 
90 
73 


36 


B 


68 


c 


50 


D 


52 


E 


150 


F 


77 


G 


225 


H 


74 






Average of middle 
two individuals 


14.5 


22.5 


22.5 


41.5 


64 


60 


72.5 


Tentative 

standard 


14 


22 


29 


33 




47 


56 


66 



Series II 



Sentence No. 
Number of words 


1 
6 


2 
7 


3 

8 


h 
9 

35 
16 

85 
32 
27 
16 
41 

32 

30 


5 
10 


6 
12 


7 

u 


8 
16 


Subject — 

I 


16 
12 
20 
15 
14 
10 
21 


17 
12 
17 
14 
15 
11 
19 


30 
12 
20 
17 
16 
13 
36 


25 
22 
24 
30 
32 
16 
43 


40 
31 
43 
35 
37 
24 
92 


70 
25 
60 
35 
38 
181 
130 


60 


J 


49 


K.. 


45 


L 


44 


M 


58 


N 


36 


O 


67 






Score of middle 
individual 


15 


15 


17 


35 


37 


60 


49 


Tentative 

standard 


16 


15 


20 


38.5 


51.2 


54.25 


64.8 



168 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

with the possible exception of Subject E, no such point 
was reached in this group, and the probability is 
against such an interpretation of E's scores. 

Extension of the experiment. There are several 
obvious modes of extending this experiment. By fur- 
ther experiments with adults the standardization of 
these sentences can be perfected. This might involve 
modifying some of the sentences, or substituting others 
for them. Still longer and more complex sentences 
could be used with adults in the attempt to reach a 
breaking point. Finally, as in other tests, there is wide 
opportunity of the standardization of this test with 
children. 



TESTS 169 



QUESTIONS AND TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION 

1. Are any devices used to keep the series of numbers in mind? 

2. Discuss the suitability of this method as a test of mental matu- 
rity. What function is involved? 

3. What methods are used to solve the problem of reconstruct- 
ing the sentences? Are different methods used? Are different 
methods used with sentences of different length or degree of 
difficulty? 

4. Does your knowledge of child psychology lead you to think 
that children of different ages might use different methods? 

5. What type of mental activity is tested in this experiment? 

6. Is the effect of increasing mental maturity to introduce dif- 
ferent mental processes into the performance of such tasks as 
these? If not what change does take place? 

7. Examine the reports of tests to discover in what kinds of 
mental process the greatest change with mental maturity ap- 
pears. 

8. Which kind of test, one which shows large, or one which shows 
small, progress with age, is better suited to the mental ex- 
amination of children? 

REFERENCES 

Squire, Carrie Ransom. "Graded Mental Tests"; in Journal of 
Educational Psychology (1912), pp. 363-80, 430-43, 493-506. 

Terman, L. M., and Childs, H. G. "A Tentative Revision and 
Extension of the Binet-Simon Measuring Scale of Intelligence"; in 
Journal of Educational Psychology (1912), pp. 61, 133, 198, 277. 

Terman, L. M. The Measurement of Intelligence. Houghton 
Mifflin Co. (1916). 

Town, Clara H. The Binet Scale. Translation. Courier Press, 
Lincoln, 111. 

Whipple, G. M. Manual of Mental and Physical Tests, pp. 441- 
511. 

Yerkes, R. M., and Bridges, J. W. A Point Scale for Measuring 
Mental Ability. (Baltimore, 1915.) 



170 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

Experiment No. 16 
correlation between tests 

Problem. The measurement of correlation is impor- 
tant in the study of a variety of problems. In educa- 
tional psychology correlation refers to the extent to 
which the presence of a certain degree of one mental 
trait implies the presence of a second trait in a corre- 
sponding degree. Put in another way, the degree of 
correlation between two traits may be measured by 
the degree of correspondence between the two series 
or orders when the individuals of a group are ranked 
according to their efficiency in each of the two proc- 
esses. 

Some of the various methods of calculating degrees 
of correlation are therefore based upon the arrange- 
ment of a group of individuals in ranks. For example, 
suppose we wish to determine the correlation between 
height and weight in a group of persons. After each in- 
dividual has been weighed and measured the individ- 
uals are given a ranking according to each of the two 
characteristics separately. If the same person stands 
at the head of the two lists, — that is, if the tallest per- 
son is also the heaviest, — and if each person occupies 
the same position in the two rankings all the way down, 
there is complete positive correlation. On the other 
hand, if the individual who is at the top of one ranking 
is at the bottom of the second, and if this relation is 



TESTS 171 

maintained throughout, there is complete negative 
correlation. If such a relation obtains between the two 
rankings as would be ascribed only to the operation of 
chance, there is no correlation. More exact methods 
take account not simply of the rank or 'position of an 
individual, but also of the amount of his deviation 
from a central tendency. 

For the study of the correlation between mental 
traits various methods have been used. A brief ac- 
count of the more important methods is given in the 
discussion of the results of this experiment. For fuller 
discussion the reader is referred to the convenient ac- 
count which is given by Whipple in his Manual of 
Mental and Physical Tests. Whipple appends a bibli- 
ography which may be used as a guide to further study. 
Examples of the extensive use of the correlation 
method in psychology are to be found in the investiga- 
tions of Burt and Simpson. 

These and other investigations have made it clear 
that there is a high degree of correlation between some 
mental traits, and a low degree between others. The 
purpose of this experiment is to measure the correla- 
tion between mental traits which are representative of 
various groups of mental abilities. Three traits or 
forms of ability will be measured, one of them being 
tested twice, and the four correlations between the 
various pairs will be found. 

Material and method. The abilities which are to be 
measured are (1) rate of tapping, as an illustration of 



172 



EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 



motor ability; (2) pitch discrimination, as an illustra- 
tion of sensory discrimination; and (3) the opposites 
test, as an illustration of the more complex mental 
processes. 

(1) The tapping test is a simple one to perform. By 
means of a stop-watch and an apparatus for recording 
the number of taps the rapidity of tapping with the 
hand is measured. (See Figure 7.) The number of taps 




Fig. 7. DIAGRAM OF THE CONNECTIONS FOR THE TAPPING 
APPARATUS 

is recorded by an electric counting device. A stylus 
and brass plate are in circuit with an electric battery 
or other circuit and with an electric clock. Each time 
the circuit is closed by bringing the stylus in contact 
with the brass plate, the hand of the clock moves for- 
ward one point. The procedure then is to tap continu- 
ously for five seconds, as rapidly as possible, and then 
read off the record on the clock. The clock should be 
set at zero before each trial by turning the hand for- 
ward. In tapping, the forearm should be allowed to 



TESTS 173 

rest on the table, and the movement should be made 
with the wrist. Three trials of five seconds duration 
each should be made, and the average of the three 
taken. 

(2) The test in pitch discrimination consists in the 
determination of the amount of difference between 
two tones which must exist in order that one may be 
distinguished as higher than the other. A convenient 
and accurate form of apparatus to use in measuring 
pitch discrimination is the tuning fork. In the present 
experiment a standard tuning fork of 435 vibrations is 
used, and a number of other forks differing from it by 
varying numbers of vibrations for making the com- 
parisons. 

The same general method of procedure is to be used 
as in the test of auditory acuity: that is, the compari- 
son should begin with tones which can be easily dis- 
tinguished and proceed gradually to the smaller inter- 
vals, until a point is reached at which eight out of ten 
judgments are correct. The interval between the two 
tones as found thus may be recorded as the descending 
threshold. This threshold is sufficiently reliable. 

Several features of procedure should be mentioned. 
The fork which is to be compared with the standard 
should first be put in position with the standard fork 
on the sounding box. Then, after a " ready " signal, 
one of the forks should be struck, then damped, and 
then the second struck and damped. While one fork 
is sounding the other one should be damped to pre- 



174 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

vent sympathetic vibration. The duration of each 
tone and of the interval between them should be uni- 
formly about two seconds. Care should be taken to 
avoid any regularity in striking either the standard or 
the comparison tone first. Occasionally the same tone 
should be struck twice in succession as a check. 

(3) The procedure in the opposites test is simple. A 
list of words is furnished and the problem is to supply 
for each one a word which has the opposite meaning. 
The task is to supply the opposite word within a 
time limit of ten seconds for each word. The response 
words should be written, and the time may be extended 
until the writing of a word is completed if it has been 
begun within the ten seconds. In order that the same 
test may be used by subject and experimenter, the sub- 
ject should take the printed list of words and cover it 
with a sheet of paper. Each word may be uncovered by 
sliding a card so that the opening comes over it at a 
signal given by the experimenter at the interval men- 
tioned. The subject should study the word until the 
next signal is given or until the opposite is found. The 
score consists in the total number of opposites cor- 
rectly given. The response, to be correct, need not be 
the exact word given in the response list, but should 
be a synonym of it. The lists of stimulus words and 
specimen opposites are given in the Appendix, which 
see. 

Treatment of results. Since the chief results in this 
experiment appear from a comparison of the results 



TESTS 175 

from the various individuals of the group, each mem- 
ber of the class should calculate one correlation coeffi- 
cient. The members of the class may be numbered. 
Number 1 should calculate the first correlation men- 
tioned below, number 2 the second, and so on. Num- 
ber 5 should begin at the first, and so on. The correla- 
tions to be calculated are as follows : — 

1. Between rate of tapping and pitch discrimination. 

2. Between rate of tapping and first opposites test. 

3. Between pitch discrimination and first opposites 
test. 

4. Between first and second opposites tests. 

For convenience in arranging the list of subjects, in 
order to calculate the correlations, they should be des- 
ignated by their number. Each person should there- 
fore indicate his number on his report. 

Each individual report should include, beside the 
usual preliminary statement of the problem and 
method, the full account of the results of each test, 
including introspections and description of the diffi- 
culties which were encountered. The individual report 
should also include the full calculation of the correla- 
tion coefficient, and not merely the coefficient itself. 

The general report should compare the degrees of 
correlation among the results of the various tests, and 
should enter upon a discussion of the significance of the 
differences found. Reference should be made to at- 
tempted explanations of correlation and differences in 
correlation among mental processes, such as Krueger 



176 



EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 



and Spearman's theory of a central intelligence or of a 
hierarchy of intelligences. 

Results of the experiment. The scores in the three 
tests used in this experiment are given in Table XX, 



TABLE XX. SCORES OF NINETEEN INDIVIDUALS IN 
THE TESTS 



Individual 


Rate of 
tapping 


Pitch dis- 
crimination 


Opposites 
test I 


Opposites 
test II 


1 


36 

38 

38f 

40 

40| 

41| 

41f 

42 

43 

43| 

45 

46 

46 

47 

m 

49| 
53 


8 

i 

2 
1 

17 

2 
2 
8 
3 

17 

i 

2 
1 
2 
1 
1 
2 

• 2 
i 

2 
1 

X 
2 

2 
8 


m 

20J 
201 
26 
B7J 

m 

16 

15| 

22 

20± 

181 

15 

23| 

171 

24 

24 

26 

191 

26 


10 


2 


20 


3 


13 


4 




5 




6 


11 


7 


6 


8 


10 


9 


171 


10 


10 


11 


11 


12 


10 


13 


16 


14 


181 


15 


18 


16 




17 




18 


13 


19 









with the subjects arranged in their order in the tapping 
test. Charts VII and VIII and Table XXI illustrate 
methods of displaying and calculating the correlation 
between the first and second opposites tests. These 
results are presented more for the purpose of illustrat- 
ing some of the methods of examining correlation and 



II 

20 



15 



Score 



20 



•15 



10 



TESTS 
A 



177 













































































• 














































































































































































































































































































1 


















































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































I 15 20 25 

B 


















































































































































































































































































































































j 


















l 


i 

































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































II 



Individual AB CBEFGH I JKLMN 

Chart VII. GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION OF THE CORRELATION 
BETWEEN THE FIRST AND SECOND OPPOSITES TESTS 



some of the requirements of valid procedure than as 
a basis for much discussion of the facts of correlation 
themselves. 

Table XXI illustrates a form of procedure which is 
necessary, in many cases, to obtain a reliable calcula- 
tion of correlation, that is, the determination first of 
the reliability of the measures secured in each test by 



178 



EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 



itself. This is secured by finding the correlation be- 
tween two performances in the same test, using, where 
the nature of the test demands it, different subject- 



TABLE XXI. CORRELATION BETWEEN FIRST AND 
SECOND OPPOSITES TESTS 



Individ- 
ual 


Score 
in I 


Score 
in II 


X 

diff. of 
scores in 
I from 
average 


y 

diff. of 
scores in 
II from 

average 


X* 


2/ 2 


xy 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 


15 

15.5 

16 

17.5 

17.5 

17.5 

18.5 

19.5 

20.5 

20.5 

20.5 

22 

23.5 

24 


10 
10 
6 
10 
11 

18.5 
11 
13 
10 
13 
20 
17.5 
16 
18 


-4 

-3.5 

-3 

-1.5 

-1.5 

-1.5 

- .5 

+ .5 

+ 1.5 

+ 1.5 

+ 1.5 

+3 

+4.5 

+5 


-3 
-3 

-7 
-3 

-2 

+5.5 

-2 


-3 


+7 
+4.5 
+3 
+5 


16 

12.25 
9 

2.25 
2.25 
2.25 
.25 
.25 
2.25 
2.25 
2.25 
9 

20.25 

25 


9 

9 
49 

9 

4 
30.25 

4 



9 


49 
20.25 

9 
25 


+ 12 
+ 10.5 
+21 
+ 4.5 
+ 3.0 

- 8.25 
+ 1 



- 4.5 


+10.5 
+ 13.5 
+ 13.5 
+25 


Average . 


19 


13 






105.5 


226.5 


101.75 



(■ 



tx- y 101.75 101.75 

' V2 x* ■ Ty* = V105.5X226.5 ~ 154.6 
sum of the products of x and y 



= 65.8 



square root of (the sum of x* X the sum of 



V)) 



matter in the two performances. If this correlation is 
not fairly high — above .60 — the degree of correla- 
tion between this test and others is of little significance, 
since the scores are not accurate measures of the ability 



TESTS 



179 



in question. A formula has been developed by Spear- 
man to correct a coefficient of correlation when it is 



Bi 



Positive correlation 

































































































































































































































































































































































































































































Ascending * 
















































































































































































































































































































' 




/ 




























/ 




























/ 



















































































Ascending . 



Negative correlation 




Ascending • 













































































b 
















t 




























































































































































c 






























































CO 

< 































































































































































Ascending - 



Chart VIII. DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING THE INTERPRETATION OF 
THE TWO GRAPHIC METHODS OF DISPLAYING CORRELATION 
USED IN CHART VII 

(A) illustrates the method of plotting the position of each individual with 
reference to the two tests by designating his position with reference to both 
coordinates, one of which represents the scale of scores in one test and the 
other the scale in the second test. (B) illustrates the method in which the 
positions in the two tests are plotted separately with reference to the same 
coordinate. 



reduced by lack of precision in the results in the indi- 
vidual tests, but the reliability of this formula is 
doubtful, and it is far better to perfect the methods of 



180 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

giving the tests until their results are consistent. In 
the case before us two series of opposites were used 
with the same persons. The correlation between them 
appears from the table to be satisfactory (r = 65.8), 
though it might well be higher. 

This table illustrates the most precise method of 
calculating correlation, namely, by the Pearson prod- 
ucts-moment method. This and the two methods 
which Spearman has derived, the rank method and the 
foot-rule method, are described in Whipple and criti- 
cally discussed in Brown. 

The products-moment method may be compared 
with two graphic methods by reference to Chart VII. 
In the first graphic method, designated A, the two 
scores of each individual are represented by a single 
position. This position is determined by reference to 
two coordinates, one of which provides the scale of 
performance in one of the tests, and the other the scale 
of performance in the other test. 

If the dots which indicate these positions group them- 
selves along a line which divides the angles formed by 
the two coordinates, such as the line in figure Aa, 
Chart VIII, there is evidence of correlation, since each 
individual occupies about the same position in the two 
tests. If high standing in one test is regularly accom- 
panied by low standing in the other, so that the corre- 
lation is negative, the dots will be grouped about a line 
having somewhat the general position of that in Ab, 
Chart VIII. In the case before us the grouping indi- 



TESTS 181 

cates a fairly high degree of correlation, as does the 
correlation coefficient. 

In Chart VII, B, another graphic method is illus- 
trated. In this case the scores of each test are plotted 
separately, and are represented by a scale or scales 
along a single coordinate. The positions in the other 
direction are arbitrarily arranged along the other coor- 
dinate. Thus the scores in each test are represented by 
a series of dots or lines, and the relation of the two series 
represents the degree of correlation present. Chart 
VIII, B, a and b, represent regular and extreme posi- 
tive and negative correlation, respectively, when one 
of the series is arranged in regular ascending or de- 
scending order. 

Chart VII, B, indicates an approach to a parallelism 
of the two lines, indicating considerable positive corre- 
lation. The ready comparison is made possible, as al- 
ready suggested, by arranging one of the series in as- 
cending or descending order. In this case the scores of 
Test I were arranged in ascending order. 

Contrasted with the considerable positive correla- 
tion shown in Chart VII, Chart IX, which represents 
the scores of the tapping and pitch discrimination 
tests, exhibits certainly no positive correlation, and no 
large amount of correlation of any sort. 

Likewise the products-moment method gives no 
correlation between the scores in the rate of tapping 
and the first opposites tests (r = .07). 

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TESTS 183 

showing correlation. One rough method was illus- 
trated in formulating the results of Experiment No. 11. 
Another method of somewhat similar nature was used 
by W. F. Dearborn and others in studying school 
grades. This method consists in arranging the two sets 
of measures in two distributions, dividing the measures 
in each distribution into three or more equal groups ac- 
cording to their rank, and finding the percentage of 
cases which fall into the corresponding groups in the 
two arrays. This percentage has been termed the per- 
centage of retention. The significance of the percent- 
age of retention is not altogether clear. It certainly 
varies according to the number of groups used, since 
this affects the percentage which represents the lack of 
any positive correlation. Further, where three groups 
are used, at least, a purely chance relationship and 
complete negative correlation might be represented by 
the same percentage, 33^. 

In general it may be laid down as a principle that 
whenever possible it is better to use complete fre- 
quency tables on the same principle as Chart VII, A, 
or arranged as in Experiment No. 11, or some graphic 
method that displays all the facts. These facts should 
be analyzed and the various types of cases classified. 
Where it is highly desirable to get an expression of the 
general degree of correlation, one of the crude methods 
may be used where only very rough results are de- 
sired. When more precise results are desirable the 
Pearson method is to be recommended, but it must 



184 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

be remembered that the same single coefficient may 
represent many different sorts of relationship. 

With reference to the facts of correlation brought 
out in this experiment, it appears that, so far as our 
results go, motor dexterity is not correlated positively 
with sensory discrimination, or sensory discrimination 
with the recognition of the relationship of opposites. 
This result is fairly typical. It was planned to include 
another function comparable in the kind of mental 
performance required with the opposites test, named 
the Ries test, referred to in the list of references. But 
the two examples of the Ries test which were used did 
not give correlated results, and it was not included. 

Extension of the experiment. This experiment may 
be extended by attempting to work out satisfactory 
forms of the Ries test, and also by including other 
tests. See Burt and B. R. Simpson. 



TESTS 185 



QUESTIONS AND TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION 

1. Suggest some of the practical bearings of the facts regarding 
correlation. 

2. What is the relation between correlation of mental traits and 
formal discipline? 

3. What bearing does the presence or absence of correlation have 
upon the view of the mind as made up of relatively isolated 
traits or of closely related ones? 

4. Compare the concepts of correlation and of specialization in 
their bearing on vocational guidance. 

5. How may correlation be used in selecting a test for mental 
maturity or for intelligence? 

6. Illustrate concretely the fact that the same correlation coef- 
ficient may indicate any one of several kinds of relationship. 
What is the practical application of this fact? 

7. Indicate roughly how much reliance can be placed on the 
result of the application of a single test to an individual to 
measure the presence of some trait, when the correlation (r) 
between the scores in the test and the trait is .70. 

8. Indicate how irrelevant factors, as age or practice, may falsify 
a correlation coefficient if they are not taken account of. 

9. What is the effect of chance errors? How are they to be 
treated? 

REFERENCES 

Bagley, W. C. "On Correlation of Mental and Motor Ability 
in School Children"; in American Journal of Psychology (1901), vol. 
12, pp. 193-205. 

Brown, W. The Essentials of Mental Measurement. (Cambridge 
University Press. 1911.) 

Burt, C. "Experimental Tests of General Intelligence"; in British 
Journal of Psychology (1909), vol. 3, pp. 94-177. 

Clement, J. A. Standardization of the Schools of Kansas. (Chicago, 
1912.) 

Dearborn, W. F. The Relative Standing of Pupils in the High 
School and in the University. Bulletin of the University of Wisconsin, 
no. 312, High School Series no. 6. 

Gilbert, C. A. Researches on the Mental and Physical Development 
of School Children. Yale Psychological Studies (1894), vol. 2, pp. 
40-100. 

Heck, W. H. Mental Discipline (2d edition), pp. 96 jf. 



186 EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION 

Krueger, F., and Spearman, C, "Die Correlation Zwischen ver- 
scheidenen geistigen Leistungsfahigkeiten"; in Zeitschrift fiir Psy- 
chologie, etc. (1907), vol. 44, pp. 50-114. 

Ries, Georg. "Beitrage zur Methodik der Intelligenz-priifung"; 
in Zeitschrift fur Psychologie, etc. (1910), vol. 56, pp. 21-343. 

Simpson, B. R. Correlations of Mental Abilities. (Columbia Uni- 
versity Press.) 

Spearman, C. "General Intelligence Objectively Determined and 
Measured"; in American Journal of Psychology (1904), vol. 15, 
pp. 201-93. 

Stern, W. Psychological Methods of Testing Intelligence. Tr. by 
G. M. Whipple. (Warwick & York, Baltimore.) 

Thorndike, E. L. Educational Psychology, vol. in. 

Thorndike, E. L. An Introduction to the Theory of Mental and 
Social Measurements. (New York, 1904.) 

Whipple, G. M. Manual of Mental and Physical Tests, vol. 1, 
chap. in. 



APPENDIX 

FIGURES AND TESTS FOR USE WITH THE 
EXPERIMENTS 




(189) 






(190) 




FIGURE FOR EXPERIMENT 3 — TAIT UNICURSAL LABYRINTH 



(191) 



SERIES OF SYLLABLES FOR EXPERIMENT 5 



Series I 


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POEM TO BE USED IN EXPERIMENT 6 
ENOCH ARDEN 

Long lines of cliff breaking have left a chasm; 
And in the chasm are foam and yellow sands; 
Beyond, red roofs about a narrow wharf 
In cluster; then a moulder'd church; and higher 
A long street climbs to one tall-tower'd mill; 
And high in heaven behind it a gray down 
With Danish barrows; and a hazel wood, 
By autumn nutters haunted, flourishes 
Green in a cuplike hollow of the down. 
Here on this beach a hundred years ago, 
Three children of three houses, Annie Lee, 
The prettiest little damsel in the port, 
And Philip Ray, the miller's only son, 
And Enoch Arden, a rough sailor's lad 
Made orphan by a winter shipwreck, play'd 
Among the waste and lumber of the shore, 
Hard coils of cordage, swarthy fishing-nets, 
Anchors of rusty fluke, and boats up-drawn; 
And built their castles of dissolving sand 
To watch them overflow'd, or following up 
And flying the white breaker, daily left 
The little footprint daily wash'd away. 

A narrow cave ran in beneath the cliff; 
In this the children play'd at keeping house. 
Enoch was host one day, Philip the next, 
While Annie still was mistress; but at times 
Enoch would hold possession for a week: 
"This is my house and this my little wife." 
"Mine too," said Philip; "turn and turn about"; 
When, if they quarrell'd, Enoch stronger-made 
Was master. Then would Philip, his blue eyes 
All flooded with the helpless wrath of tears, 



194 APPENDIX 

Shriek out, "I hate you, Enoch," and at this 
The little wife would weep for company, 
And pray them not to quarrel for her sake, 
And say she would be little wife to both. 

But when the dawn of rosy childhood past, 
And the new warmth of life's ascending sun 
Was felt by either, either fi"xt his heart 
On that one girl; and Enoch spoke his love, 
But Philip loved in silence; and the girl 
Seem'd kinder unto Philip than to him; 
But she loved Enoch, tho' she knew it not, 
And would if ask'd deny it. Enoch set 
A purpose evermore before his eyes, 
To hoard all savings to the uttermost, 
To purchase his own boat, and make a home 
For Annie; and so prosper'd that at last 
A luckier or a bolder fisherman, 
A carefuller in peril, did not breathe 
For leagues along that breaker-beaten coast 
Than Enoch. Likewise had he served a year 
On board a merchantman, and made himself 
Full sailor; and he thrice had pluck'd a life 
From the dread sweep of the down-streaming seas, 
And all men look'd upon him favorably. 
And ere he touch'd his one-and-twentieth May 
He purchased his own boat, and made a home 
For Annie, neat and nestlike, halfway up 
The narrow street that clamber'd toward the mill. 

Then, on a golden autumn eventide, 
The younger people making holiday, 
With bag and sack and basket, great and small, 
Went nutting to the hazels. Philip stay'd — 
His father lying sick and needing him — 
An hour behind; but as he climb'd the hill, 
Just where the prone edge of the wood began 
To feather toward the hollow, saw the pair, 
Enoch and Annie, sitting hand-in-hand, 



APPENDIX 195 

His large gray eyes and weather-beaten face 
All-kindled by a still and sacred fire, 
That burn'd as on an altar. Philip look'd 
And in their eyes and faces read his doom; 
Then, as their faces drew together, groan'd, 
And slipt aside, and like a wounded life 
Crept down into the hollows of the wood; 
There, while the rest were loud in merry-making, 
Had his dark hour unseen, and rose and past 
Bearing a lifelong hunger in his heart. 

So these were wed, and merrily rang the bells, 
And merrily ran the years, seven happy years, 
Seven happy years of health and competence, 
And mutual love and honorable toil, 
With children, first a daughter. In him woke, 
With his first babe's first cry, the noble wish 
To save all earnings to the uttermost, 
And give his child a better bringing-up 
Than his had been, or hers; a wish renew'd, 
When two years after came a boy to be 
The rosy idol of her solitudes, 
While Enoch was abroad on wrathful seas, 
Or often journeying landward; for in truth 
Enoch's white horse, and Enoch's ocean-spoil 
In ocean-smelling osier, and his face, 
Rough-redden'd with a thousand winter gales, 
Not only to the market-cross were known, 
But in the leafy lanes behind the down, 
Far as the portal-warding lion-whelp 
And peacock yew-tree of the lonely Hall, 
Whose Friday fare was Enoch's ministering. 

Then came a change, as all things human change. 
Ten miles to northward of the narrow port 
Open'd a larger haven. Thither used 
Enoch at times to go by land or sea; 
And once when there, and clambering on a mast 
In harbor, by mischance he slipt and fell. 



196 APPENDIX 

A limb was broken when they lifted him; 
And while he lay recovering there, his wife 
Bore him another son, a sickly one. 
Another hand crept too across his trade 
Taking her bread and theirs; and on him fell, 
Altho' a grave and staid God-fearing man, 
Yet lying thus inactive, doubt and gloom. 
He seem'd, as in a nightmare of the night, 
To see his children leading evermore 
Low miserable lives of hand-to-mouth, 
And her he loved a beggar. Then he pray'd, 
"Save them from this, whatever comes to me." 
And while he pray'd, the master of that ship 
Enoch had served in, hearing his mischance, 
Came, for he knew the man and valued him, 
Reporting of his vessel China-bound, 
And wanting yet a boatswain. "Would he go? 
There yet were many weeks before she sail'd, 
Sail'd from this port. Would Enoch have the place? 
And Enoch all at once assented to it, 
Rejoicing at that answer to his prayer. 

So now that shadow of mischance appear'd 
No graver than as when some little cloud 
Cuts off the fiery highway of the sun, 
And isles a light in the offing. Yet the wife — 
When he was gone — the children — what to do? 
Then Enoch lay long-pondering on his plans: 
To sell the boat — and yet he loved her well — 
How many a rough sea had he weather'd in her! 
He knew her, as a horseman knows his horse — 
And yet to sell her — then with what she brought 
Buy goods and stores — set Annie forth in trade 
With all that seamen needed or their wives — 
So might she keep the house while he was gone. 
Should he not trade himself out yonder? go 
This voyage more than once? yea, twice or thrice — 
As oft as needed — last, returning rich, 
Become the master of a larger craft, 



APPENDIX 197 

With fuller profits lead an easier life, 
Have all his pretty young ones educated, 
And pass his days in peace among his own. 

Thus Enoch in his heart determined all; 
Then moving homeward came on Annie pale, 
Nursing the sickly babe, her latest-born. 
Forward she started with a happy cry, 
And laid the feeble infant in his arms; 
Whom Enoch took, and handled all his limbs, 
Appraised his weight and fondled fatherlike, 
But had no heart to break his purposes 
To Annie, till the morrow, when he spoke. 

Then first since Enoch's golden ring had girt 
Her finger, Annie fought against his will; 
Yet not with brawling opposition she, 
But manifold entreaties, many a tear, 
Many a sad kiss by day, by night, renew'd — 
Sure that all evil would come out of it — 
Besought him, supplicating, if he cared 
For her or his dear children, not to go. 
He not for his own self caring, but her, 
Her and her children, let her plead in vain; 
So grieving held his will, and bore it thro'. 

For Enoch parted with his old sea-friend, 
Bought Annie goods and stores, and set his hand 
To fit their little streetward sitting-room 
With shelf and corner for the goods and stores. 
So all day long till Enoch's last at home, 
Shaking their pretty cabin, hammer and axe, 
Auger and saw, while Annie seem'd to hear 
Her own death-scaffold raising, shrill'd and rang, 
Till this was ended, and his careful hand, — 
The space was narrow, — having order'd all 
Almost as neat and close as Nature packs 
Her blossom or her seedling, paused; and lie. 
Who needs would work for Annie to the last. 
Ascending tired, heavily slept till morn. 



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200 APPENDIX 

No. 2 — 11-Point Type, 
12 Ems Line 

No elaborate discussion or 
criticism of the methods by 
which the preceding material 
has been gathered can be at- 
tempted. We have gone on 
the assumption that the various 
studies have been, at least in 
general, reliable. The interests 
that have been mentioned are, 
most of them, well recognized 
by all observers of children, and, 
while there may be errors in 
observing and interpreting the 
facts here set forth, the general 
scheme as a whole seems fairly 
consistent when we reflect upon 
the great variety of sources 
from which the material has 
come. The whole subject of 
methodology does, however^ 
need a thorough investigation. 
The object of all this class of 
studies should be to get ac- 
curate data as to the child's 
spontaneous expressions and ac- 
tivities, with definite record 
as to age, sex, and previous life- 



APPENDIX 201 

history. Every study must be 
accompanied by a careful state- 
ment of the conditions under 
which the material is secured. 
The real child-psychologists are 
endeavoring more than ever 
before to devise tests that will 
eliminate as nearly as possible 



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APPENDIX 

FIGURES AND WORDS FOR USE IN 
EXPERIMENT 10 



Part I 



A 

824397 
652834 
394275 
314927 
425768 



B 

travel 

factor 

horses 

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farmer 



Part II 





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Let us take the car. 


lor 


min nof rus 


reb 


Why did you remain? 


tof 


ris zer div 


rov 


The sun has come up. 


fim 


tok lox sif 


ras 


Do not wait longer. 






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B 




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Part 


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APPENDIX 



213 



MATERIAL FOR USE WITH EXPERIMENT 15 



PART B, RECONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES 



Series I 



No. of 
words 
fi an boy the 

apple greedy ate 

dog his faithful 

7 the slowly followed 
master 

wolves outran the 

8 swift pursuing 
horse the soon 

footsteps of they 

9 soon the heard 
afterward sound many 



10 



quickly the as 
cat flew siezed 
locust the up 
it 



No. of 

words 

clearing on as 
the side they 
fugitive other the 
entered the disappeared 



12 



14 



16 



and his closed 
secretary the himself 
office door the 
seated of desk 
the at 

watch the train 
at would his 
late traveler twenty 
the knew minutes 
and be glanced 
that 



214 



APPENDIX 



Series II 



No. of 
words 
_ hungry bone the 
gnawed dog his 

ran the ditch 

7 horse the into 
frightened 

very prize the 

8 hard Mary and 
won studied 

some said the 

9 steam boy saw 
he that yachts 



10 



and slowly the 
channel ship thru 
the narrow long 
sailed 



No. of 

words 

every the approached 
herd cautiously it 
side hunters the 
and on surrounded 



12 



the fence-tops all 
had snow when 
14 day the drifts 
up the to 
were fallen 

shed the further 
their departed tools 
16 in workmen disturbance 
homes placed the 
without and to 
their 



APPENDIX 215 



EXPERIMENT 15 — KEY TO SENTENCE 
ARRANGEMENT 

Time 
Series I (including writing) 

The greedy boy ate an apple 14 

The faithful dog followed his master slowly 22 

The swift horse soon outran the pursuing wolves ... 29 
Soon afterward they heard the sound of many foot- 
steps 33 

As the locust flew up the cat quickly seized it ... . 39 1 
As they entered the clearing the fugitive disap- 
peared on the other side 47 

The secretary closed the door of the office and 

seated himself at his desk 50 

The traveler glanced at his watch and knew that 
the train would be twenty minutes late 66 

Series II 

The hungry dog gnawed his bone 16 

The frightened horse ran into the ditch 15 

Mary studied very hard and won the prize 20 

The boy said that he saw some steam yachts 30 

The ship sailed thru the long and narrow channel. 38.5 
The hunters approached the herd and cautiously 

surrounded it on every side 51.2 

When the snow had fallen all day the drifts were up 

to the fence-tops 54 . 25 

The workmen placed their tools in the shed and 
departed to their homes without further dis- 
turbance 64 . 8 

1 Estimated. 



216 



APPENDIX 



STIMULI FOR USE WITH EXPERIMENT 16 



Opposites Test 



Stimulus List No. 1 

1. intelligent 

2. however 

3. enthusiastic . . . 

4. traitor 

5. intricate 

6. sublime 

7. petty 

8. languor 

9. disdain 

10. thorough 

11. vacillating 

12. fastidious 

13. important 

14. spendthrift . . . 

15. motion 

16. dextrous 

17. serious 

18. gentle 

19. unless 

20. although 

21. prohibit ...... 

22. uncouth 

23. conceal 

24. precise 

25. rigid 

26. suave 

27. proficient 

28. belief 

29. cruel 

30. result 



Stimulus List No. 2 

1. to respect 

2. to hold 

3. exciting 

4. simple 

5. deceitful 

6. permanent .... 

7. to degrade .... 

8. level 

9. suspicious 

10. pride 

11. despondent . . . 

12. venturesome . . 

13. silly 

14. busy 

15. preserve 

16. abet 

17. abeyance 

18. abnegation 

19. absolve 

20. alternative 

21. captious 

22. equivocal 

23. fame 

24. hazard 

25. hypocrisy 

26. imminent 

27. inherent 

28. pique 

29. satisfy 

30. terse 



APPENDIX 



217 



RESPONSE LIST FOR EXPERIMENT 10 



Opposites Test 



Response List No. 1 

1. stupid 

2. accordingly (hence) x 

3. indifferent 

4. patriot 

5. simple 

0. commonplace 

7. noble 

8. energy, vigor 

9. respect 

10. superficial 

11. constant 

12. negligent, slip-shod 

13. insignificant 

14. miser 

15. rest 
10. clumsy 

17. frivolous 

18. rough 

19. if 

20. because 

21. permit 

22. cultured, polished 

23. reveal 

24. vague, careless 

25. pliable 
20. brusque 

27. unskilled 

28. doubt 

29. sympathetic 

30. cause 



Response List No. 2 

1. despise 

2. to release 

3. soothing 

4. complex 

5. frank, truthful 
0. temporary 

7. to ennoble 

8. tilted 

9. trustful 

10. humility 

11. cheerful 

12. cautious 

13. sensible 

14. idle 

15. destroy 

10. frustrate, impede, hinder 

17. enforcement, operation 

18. claim, demand 

19. condemn 

20. compulsion, necessity 

21. fair 

22. plain, unambiguous 

23. oblivion 

24. certainty 

25. sincerity 

20. improbable, contingent 

27. incidental, unconnected 

28. complacency 

29. disappoint 

30. diffuse 



1 Synonyms may be allowed. Do not use the prefix un. 



INDEX 



Acoumeter, 154. 

Age differences, 23, 30. 

Analysis, 32/ 

Analytical scale, 83, 89, 91, 92. 

Astigmatism, 141 ff. 

Audiometer, 152. 

Ayer, F. C, 31. 

Ayres, L. P., 82, 94. 

Ayres scale, 83, 89, 90, 91, 92. 

Bach, T., 151, 161. 
Bagley, W. C, 41, 185. 
Bair, J. H., 13, 24. 
Bergstrom, J. E., 49. 
Binet-Simon measuring scale, 

169. 
Book, W. F., 13, 24. 
Bridges, J. W., 169. 
Brown, W., 180, 185. 
Bryan, 6, 13, 20, 24. 
Burt, C, 171, 184, 185. 

Childs, H. G., 169. 
Clement, J. A., 185. 
Colvin, S. S., 50, 63. 
Coordination, motor, 73/. 
Correlation, 60, 115, 110/., 

170/. 
Courtis, S. A., 138. 
Cowling, D. J., 27, SI. 

Dearborn, W. F„ 24, 107, 109, 

111, 183, 185. 
Dewey, J., 40, 139. 
Dodge, R., 95, 107. 
Drawing, 25/. 

Ebbinghaus, H., 63, 71. 
Elliot, 87. 
Erdmann, 95. 
Eulenberg, H., 151, 161. 
Experiment, 5, 7, 8, 10, 158/ 



Experiment, figures for drawing, 

189/. 
Experimentation, method of, 

4/; rules for, 9/. 

Form in handwriting, 82/ 
Freeman, F. N., 81, 94, 131, 139. 

Gilbert, C. A., 185. 

Grading, reliability in, 87/ 

Gray, C. T., 92, 93, 94. 

Grouped objects, arrangement 
of, 208/ 

Grouping in number apprehen- 
sion, 133/ 

Hand tracer, 73. 
Handwriting, analysis of, 72/ 
Handwriting scales, 83, note. 
Harter, 6, 13, 20, 24. 
Heck, W. H., 50, 185. 
Heterophoria, 141 ff. 
Huey, E. B., 95, 107, 109. 
Hyperopia, 41 /. 

Identical elements in transfer, 

147/. 
Individual differences, 20 ff., 38 f., 

53, 60, 67 ff., 75, 114, 120 ff., 

137/., 147/., 156/., 165/, 176. 
Instruction in learning, 17/., 

28, 32. 

Judd, C. II., 27, 31,81,108, 100, 
116, 119, 131, 139. 

Kelley, T. L., 90. 
Kinetoscopic method, 108. 
King, Irving, 19S. 
Krueger, P., 175, 186. 

Labyrinth, Tait, 36. 
Lange, R., 63. 



INDEX 



Lay, W., 51, 63. 

Learning, experiments in, 2 /., 

perceptual, 25 ff. 

problem solving, 32. 

sensori-motor, 13/. 

types of, 12. 
Lehman acoumeter, 155. 
Lindley, E. H., 36, 40. 

Maddox rods, 148. 
Manuel, H. T., 90, 94. 
McAllister, C. N., 109. 
McClellan, J. A., 139. 
McCallie vision test, 143. 
Memorizing, 

of sense material, 64/ 

part method of, 65 ff. 

permanence, 54/. 

recall during memorizing, 55/. 

rote, 51 ff. 

whole method of, 65 ff. 
Memory, immediate, 162/ 
Mental tests, 3/. 
Messmer, 114. 

Meumann, E., 51, 63, 71, 114. 
Mirror for observing eye move- 
ments, 95. 
Mirror tracing apparatus, 14 ff., 

41/. . 
Mnemonic devices, 53/. 
Miinsterberg, H., 138. 
Myopia, 141/. 

Nonsense syllables, 192. 

Observation as a scientific 

method, 4/. 
Opposites test, 174 ff.; material 

for, 216/. 

Pearson, 120, 180, 183. 
Pintner, R., 90. 
Pitch discrimination, 173 ff. 
Poem for memorizing, 193/. 
Psychology, educational, 1/ 
Puzzle box, 34/. 



Reading, 

efficiency in, 117/. 

eye movements, 105/. 

fusion of elements in, 113/. 
Reconstruction of sentences, 

164/; material for, 213/ 
Ries, G., 184, 186. 
Ruger, H. A., 24, 40. 

Simpson, B. R., 171, 184, 186. 
Spearman, C, 176, 179, 180, 

186. 
Squire, Carrie Ramson, 169. 
Starch, D., 24, 87, 90, 131. 
Steele, W. M., 109. 
Stenopaic lens (Stevens), 146. 
Stern, W., 186. 
Swift, E. J., 13, 20, 24. 

Tachistoscope, 111. 

Tachistoscopic method, 110, 133. 

Tachistoscopic stimuli, 212. 

Tait labyrinth, 191. 

Tapping board, 172. 

Tapping test, 172/ 

Terman, L. M., 169. 

Texts for study of eye-move- 
ments in reading, 198 ff. 

Thorndike, E. L., 40, 50, 82, 83, 
93, 94, 131, 186. 

Thorndike scale, 83. 

Town, Clara H., 169. 

Transfer for training, 41/ 

Trial frames, 143. 

Trial lenses, 143. 

Vision test cards, 143. 

Waldo, K. D., 131. 

Wallin, J. E. W., 7. 

Watt, H. J., 71. 

Weis, A. P., 90. 

Whipple, G. M., 8, 63, 114, 115, 

116, 120, 151, 161, 169, 171, 

180, 186. 

Yerkes, R. M., 169. 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 




